The study of the
Qur'an is essential for every committed Muslim,
since it is the main source and foundation of
the religious thought and faith. Whatsoever
gives meaning, essence and sanctity to his
existence lies in the Holy Qur'an.
The Qur'an is not just like other religious
books which are content to discuss the problems
of existence of God and creation in cryptic
tones, or like those which merely convey a
series of simple moral advice and counsels, so
that those who believe in them are hopelessly
left to search for guidance in other sources.
Unlike such books the Qur'an formulates the
tenets of faith besides communicating the ideas
and views that are essential for a man of faith
and belief. Similarly, it also lays down the
principles of moral and ethical values for the
purpose of social and familial existence. It
leaves the job of explanation, interpretation,
and occasionally that of ijtihad and
application of principles (usul) to secondary
matters (furu') to be dealt with through
ijtihad and sunnah. Accordingly,
utilization of any other source depends on the
prior knowledge of the Qur'an. The Qur'an is the
criterion and standard for judging all other
sources. We should judge hadith and sunnah in
the light of the Qur'an. We can accept it only
when it is in accordance with the Qur'an,
otherwise we do not accept it.
There are four more books that come after the
Qur'an, and are regarded as the most sacred and
the most authentic sources (by the Shi'ah
Muslims). They are: Al-Kafi, Man la yahduruhu
al-faqih, Tahdhib, and Istibsar. There are also
other sources like the Nahj al-Balaghah, and the
prayers of al-Sahifah al-Sajjadiyyah. All these
books are secondary to the Qur'an, and their
authenticity of source is not so absolute as
that of the Qur'an. A hadith from al-Kafi is as
trustworthy as it may be in conformity with the
Qur'an, and reliable so far as its words comply
with the teachings of the Qur'an and do not go
against it. The Prophet (S) and the infallible
Imams have said that their traditions should be
checked in the light of the Qur'an; if they do
not coincide with the words of the Qur'an, they
should be regarded as false and fake, and as
being wrongfully attributed to them; since they
have not said anything that can go against the
Qur'anic teachings.
Approaches to the Understanding
of the Qur'an
Now that the necessity of understanding the
Qur'an has been confirmed, let us see what are
the ways of understanding this book. Generally
for the purpose of a profound understanding of
any book it is necessary to study it in three
ways:
1. Authentication:
At this stage, we want to know to what extent
the relationship of a book with its author is
authentic. Suppose we want to study the
Diwan-Hafiz, or the Ruba'iyyat of 'Umar Khayyam.
At first, we have to see whether the work which
is attributed to Hafiz, wholly belongs to him,
or whether a part of it is Hafiz's work and the
rest is an apocryphal annexation to it.
Similarly in the case of 'Umar Khayyam, and
others too, we must judiciously scrutinize their
works. It is here that the matter of examination
of manuscripts --and for that matter the oldest
of them-- becomes relevant. Thus we see that
none of these books can dispense with such a
treatment. The Diwan-e-Hafiz printed by the late
Qazvini, which has been based on some of the
most authentic manuscripts of Hafiz's work,
varies greatly from the ordinary editions of
Hafiz. printed in Iran and Bombay, which are
usually found in homes. The editions of Hafiz's
works published during the last thirty or forty
years contain as much as twice the amount of
Hafiz's original works. In view of certain
modern manuscript experts of repute, they are
fake; although we occasionally come across in
them some verses which match the sublime heights
of Hafiz's poetry. Likewise when we study the
quatrains attributed to 'Umar Khayyam, we shall
find nearly two hundred quatrains of the same
poetical standard with only minor differences
usually possible even among the authentic verses
of a single poet. However, if we look back at
the history of Khayyam's times, we shall notice
that the number of quatrains attributed to him
may perhaps be less than twenty. The
authenticity of the rest of them is either
doubtful, or may with certainty be said to
belong to other poets.
It means that the first step towards the
research study of any book is to see to what
extent the book in our hands is authentic,
whether all the things recorded on its pages are
genuine, or if only a part of it is authentic.
Moreover, what criteria and standards should be
employed in order to judge the authenticity and
genuineness of authorship? By what logic can the
authenticity of any book be totally rejected or
affirmed?
The Qur'an is absolutely exempt from all such
criteria that may be applicable to all worldly
books. It is regarded as the exclusively
singular book since the ancient times. No book
of ancient days has remained above doubt to such
extent despite a long lapse of several hundred
years. No one can ever say about it that such
and such a surah has a questionable authenticity
or such and such a verse that is present in such
and such a manuscript is missing from another
manuscript. The Qur'an stands above the notions
of manuscript reading. There is no place for the
slightest doubt that all of the verses that
exist in the Qur'an are those conveyed to
Muhammad ibn 'Abd Allah (S) who communicated
them as the miraculous Word of God. Nobody can
ever claim that another version of the Qur'an
existed anywhere, or still exists. There has not
been any Orientalist either who would begin the
study of the Qur'an by saying, "let us trace
from the earliest of the manuscripts of the
Qur'an to see what was included in it and what
was not." The Qur'an is absolutely free from
this kind of investigation necessary in case of
such books as the Bible, the Torah, or the
Avesta, or the Shahnameh of Ferdowsi, or the
Gulistan of Sa'di and every other ancient or not
so ancient work.
Only for the study of the Qur'an no such
questions arise, and the Qur'an is far above the
usual norms of authenticity and the craft of
manuscript reading. Moreover, besides the fact
that the Qur'an is one of the heavenly
scriptures and has been regarded by its
followers as the most basic and authentic proof
of the Prophet's (S) claim to prophethood, and
as the greatest of his miracles, the Qur'an,
unlike the Torah, was not revealed at one time
and was not subject to later difficulties in
distinguishing the true manuscript. The verses
of the Qur'an were revealed gradually during a
span of twenty-three years. From the very first
day, the eager Muslims memorized its verses,
preserved and recorded them. Those were the days
when the Muslim society was quite a simple
society. No other book existed besides the
Qur'an, and the Muslims were inevitably inclined
to memorize its verses. Their clear, unmarked
minds and their powerful memory, their general
ignorance about reading and writing, all these
factors assisted them in acquiring and retaining
their information regarding the Qur'an. This is
the reason why the message of the Qur'an, which
was so congenial to their sensibilities and
their natural propensities, got effectively
imprinted on their hearts like inscription on
stone. Since they believed it to be the Word of
God, it was sacred to them also. They couldn't
permit themselves that a single word or even a
letter of it be altered or replaced in its text.
They tried to acquire the nearness to God by
reciting its verses. It should be noted here
that from the very early days the Prophet (S)
had engaged a group of scribes for the purpose
of writing down the Qur'an, who were known as
the "Scribes of the Revelation." This should be
regarded as one of the merits in favour of the
Qur'an from which all other ancient books are
excluded. The absence of any alteration and
change in the Word of God was on account of this
process of writing and recording from the very
beginning.
The other reason responsible for the
popularity of the Qur'an among the people was
its extraordinary, supernatural literary and
artistic dimension depicted in its rhetoric and
eloquence. It was this strong literary
attraction towards the Qur'an, which had an
appeal for the people, that prompted them to
immediately memorize its verses. But unlike
other literary works like the Diwan-e-Hafiz and
poems of Rumi, which are exposed to meddling by
admirers who think they are improving on the
original, nobody could ever give himself the
permission of meddling with the sacred text; for
the Qur'an immediately declared in one of its
verses:
Had he [the Prophet (S)] invented against
Us any sayings, We would have seized him by
the right hand, then We would surely have
cut his life vein. (69:44-46)
There are several other verses in the Qur'an
that forbid forgery in relation to the Word of
God. The gravity of this sin as stressed by the
Qur'an had profound impression upon minds and
served as a severe discouragement in this
regard. In this way, before any type of
alterations could have taken place in its
verses, they were repeated often, thus reaching
a stage that it was impossible to increase,
diminish or alter even a single word in this
heavenly book. Accordingly, there is neither any
need of any discussion about the Qur'an from the
point of view of authenticity, nor does any
scholar of the Qur'an throughout the world see
any necessity of such a discussion. However, I
think, it is necessary to remind the readers
about the fact that, because of the rapid
expansion of the Islamic domain and distance of
the major part of the population living far away
from Medina, which was the center of huffaz
(those who memorized) of the Qur'an and the
Companions of the Prophet, there arose the
danger of occurrence of advertent or wilful
gradual alteration in the Qur'anic text. But the
prompt dexterity and timely awareness on the
part of early Muslims averted this danger.
Within the first five decades, they utilized the
services of the Sahabah (the Companions of the
Prophet) and those of the huffaz of the
Qur'an for the purpose of averting the chances
of conscious or inadvertent alterations in the
text of the Qur'an. They distributed approved
copies of the Qur'an from Medina to the
surrounding regions. They thus checked any
chances of wrongdoing, especially on the part of
the Jews, who are well-known champions in this
field.
2. Analytical Study:
During this stage of study and analysis of a
book, it is essential to understand these
things: the subject it deals with, the goal that
it pursues, its outlook regarding the world, its
point of view concerning man and society, its
style and treatment of the subject-whether the
treatment of the subject is in an intellectual
and scholarly manner, or whether it has its own
characteristic style. One more question that is
relevant in this context is whether this book
contains any message and guidance for humanity
or not. If the answer to this question is in the
affirmative, then what is the message that it
conveys? The first group of questions are, of
course, concerned with the point of view and
outlook of the book regarding man and universe,
about life and death etc. In other words, these
questions are associated with the, world-outlook
of the book, and in terms of Islamic philosophy,
with its al-hikmat al-nazariyyah
(theoretical wisdom). But the second group of
questions is concerned with the perspective of
future of mankind offered by the book. They deal
with the suggested basis for moulding the human
kind and human societies. This aspect may be
regarded as the "message" of the book.
This sort of understanding is, however,
concerned with the subject of the book, and is
relevant in regard to all kinds of books,
whether it is the medical treatise of Ibn Sina,
or if it is the Gulistan of Sa'di. It is
possible that a book may lack an outlook as well
as a message, or it may contain an outlook but
not a message, or it may contain both.
Regarding the analytical study of the Qur'an
we shall have to see, in general, what sort of
problems does the Qur'an deal with, and what is
its manner of presenting them. What is its
manner of argument and its approach to various
problems? Does the Qur'an, being the defender,
presenter and protector of faith, and its
message being a religious message, view reason
as a rival to its teachings, and clings to a
defensive posture against it, or whether it
considers reason as a supporter and protector of
faith and relies upon its power? These questions
and various other queries, arise during the
analytical study of the Qur'an.
3. Study of the Sources of Ideas:
At this stage, i.e. after verification of
authenticity of the authorship of a book, and
after thorough study and analysis of its
contents, we come to the stage of exploring
whether the contents of the book comprise of its
author's own original ideas, or, the ideas have
been borrowed from some other source. For
instance, in studying Hafiz's works, after
verifying the authenticity of the verses and
making their analytical study, we have to see
whether these themes, ideas and thoughts that
have been incorporated into Hafiz's poetry and
poured into the moulds of his words, phrases,
couplets, language and style, are actually the
creations of Hafiz, or whether only the words
and phrases and the beauty, art and
craftsmanship reflected in the verses come from
Hafiz, whereas the thoughts and ideas belong to
someone else, or have been borrowed from another
source. After ascertaining his artistic
originality, the intellectual originality of
Hafiz's works has also to be established.
This kind of study regarding Hafiz, or any
other author, implies the study of the source
and roots of the author's ideas and thought.
This sort of study is secondary to an analytical
study; that is, firstly the contents of the
author's thought should be completely
understood, and afterwards an attempt should be
made to identify its roots and sources.
Otherwise, the result of one's effort will be
something like the works of certain writers of
history of various sciences, who write without
any thorough knowledge of the subject, or
similar to the works of those writers of
philosophical books, who undertake, for
instance, a comparative study of Ibn Sina and
Aristotle, without any knowledge of either.
After superficial comparison and on discovering
some literal similitudes between the works of
the two great thinkers, they immediately sit
down to pass a quick judgment. Although, for the
purpose of a comparative study, very deep and
profound knowledge of the ideas and thoughts of
both of the philosophers is required. A lifetime
of study is necessary for such a task;
otherwise, it has no more value than can be
given to blind imitative conjectures.
For the study and understanding of the
Qur'an, an analytical study must be followed by
a comparative and historical study. That is, the
contents of the Qur'an should be compared with
other books that existed at that time, specially
the religious ones. For the purpose of such a
comparison, it is essential to keep in mind the
conditions and relations of the Arabian
peninsula with other parts of the world, and the
number of educated Arabs living in Mecca at the
time. Only then we can arrive at an estimation
of the influence of other books of those times
on the contents of the Qur'an, and if we find
something common in them, discover its
proportions. We can then see whether the
material that has been borrowed from other books
is used in an original manner or not. Does the
Qur'an go even further to the extent of playing
a role in amending the contents of those books
and setting right the errors occurring in them?
The Three Distinguishing
Characteristics of the Qur'an
Our study of the Qur'an acquaints us with three
distinguishing characteristics of this holy
book. The first distinguishing characteristic is
the absolute authenticity of its source. That
is, without the slightest need of any comparison
between the oldest manuscripts, it is evident
that what we recite as the verses of the Holy
Qur'an, are exactly the same words presented
before the world by Muhammad ibn 'Abd-Allah (S).
The second characteristic feature of the Qur'an
is the quality of its contents: its teachings
are genuinely original and have not been adopted
or plagiarized. It is the duty of an analytical
study to prove this fact. The third
characteristic of the Qur'an is its Divine
identity: its teachings have been delivered to
the Prophet from a world that transcends his
thought and mind. The Prophet (S) was only a
recipient of this revelation and message. This
is the result that we obtain from the study of
the sources and roots of the Qur'an.
But the study of the sources of the Qur'an,
and confirmation of its originality, depend upon
the analytical study. So I resolve to open this
discussion with the analytical study of the
Qur'an. We shall first see what is the subject
matter of the Qur'an, what kind of problems are
discussed in it, what type of problems have been
given priority, and in what manner those
subjects are presented in it. If we are
successful in our critical analysis, and acquire
a sufficient understanding of the Qur'anic
teachings, it will bring us to an acknowledgment
of its principal aspect, which is the Divine
aspect of the Qur'an, the quality of its being a
Divine miracle.
Conditions Necessary for the Study of the
Qur'an
The understanding of the Qur'an requires certain
preliminaries which are briefly described here.
The first essential condition necessary for the
study of the Qur'an, is the knowledge of the
Arabic language, such as for the understanding
of Hafiz and Sa'di, it is impossible to get
anywhere without the knowledge of the Persian
language. In the same way, to acquaint oneself
with the Qur'an without knowing the Arabic
language is impossible. The other essential
condition is the knowledge of the history of
Islam; since, unlike the Bible and the Torah,
this book was revealed gradually during a long
period of twenty-three years of the Prophet's
life, a tumultuous time in the history of Islam.
It is on this account that every verse of the
Qur'an is related to certain specific historical
incident called sha'n-i nuzul The sha'n-i nuzul,
by itself does not restrict the meaning of the
verses, but the knowledge of the particulars of
revelation throws more light on the subject of
the verses in an effective way.
The third condition essential for the
understanding of the Qur'an, is the correct
knowledge of the sayings of the Prophet (S). He
was, according to the Qur'an itself, the
interpreter of the Qur'an par excellence. The
Qur'an says:
We have revealed to you the Reminder that
you may make clear to men what has been
revealed to them ... (16:44)
The Qur'an also says:
It is He who has sent among the
illiterate a Messenger from among them, to
recite His sings to them, and to purify them
and to teach them the Book and the Wisdom.
(62:2)
According to the Qur'an, the Prophet (S) himself
is the exegetist and the interpreter of the
Qur'anic text. Whatever has reached us from the
Prophet, is of great help in our understanding
of the Qur'an. For the Shi'ah, who believe in
the infallible Imams (A) also, and believe that
the Prophet (S) has transmitted everything he
obtained from God to his spiritual successors
(awliya'), those genuine riwayat (narrations
about the Prophet (S)) that have reached us
through the Imams, possess the same degree of
authenticity as those obtained directly from the
Prophet (S). Accordingly, the authentic riwayat
of the Imams are of great help to us in our
understanding of the Qur'an.
A very important point to remember during the
initial stages of study, is that we should try
to understand the Qur'an with the help of the
Qur'an itself; because, the verses of the Qur'an
constitute a completely united integral whole, a
coherent unified structure. If we single out any
verse from the Qur'an and try to understand it
in isolation from the rest of the Book, it would
not be a correct method. However, it is possible
that we may happen to understand it, but the
method is not recommended by caution, as certain
verses of the Qur'an are explanatory for certain
other verses. All great commentators of the
Qur'an have affirmed this method; the infallible
Imams also had approved of this manner of
interpretation of the Qur'anic verses. The
Qur'an has its own specific mode of discussing
various problems. There are instances where if a
solitary verse is studied without placing it in
its proper context, it gives quite a different
sense than when it is seen under the light of
the verses dealing with a similar subject.
For instance, the specific mode and style of
the Qur'an may be noticed from the distinction
drawn between al-ayat al-muhkamat (the firm
verses) and al-ayat al-mutashabihat (the
ambiguous verses). There is a prevalent view
regarding the muhkamat and the mutashabihat.
Some people imagine that al-ayat al-muhkamat are
such verses as whose meaning is quite simple and
clear, whereas the meaning of al-ayat
al-mutashabihat is cryptic, enigmatic and
puzzling. According to this notion, men are only
permitted to cogitate upon the meaning of
al-ayat al-muhkamat, and al-ayat al-mutashabihat
are basically inscrutable and beyond their
understanding. Here, the question arises, what
is the philosophy underlying al-ayat
al-mutashabihat? Why has the Qur'an put forward
such verses that are incomprehensible? A brief
answer to this question is that neither muhkam
means "simple" and "clear", nor mutashabih means
"ambiguous", "cryptic" and "enigmatic."
"Ambiguous" and "enigmatic" are adjectives
applicable to sentences that do not convey the
meaning in a direct and simple manner, as are
sometimes met in the writings of various
authors. For example, when Sultan Mahmud
rewarded the poetic efforts of Ferdowsi with a
reward of an insignificant and humiliating
amount of money, Ferdowsi did not accept it, and
instead he accused Sultan Mahmud of the trait of
parsimony in his versified lampoons. Some of
them were quite clear and obvious whereas the
others were not devoid of ambiguity and a lot of
enigma. Ferdowsi is quite direct when he says:
Had the king's mother been an honourable
lady,
He would have rewarded me with knee-high
gold and silver.
However, when he remarks:
The palm of king Mahmud, the conqueror of
lands,
Was nine times nine and three times
four,
what does he intend to say? Here Ferdowsi has
made use of an enigmatic technique. Those who
are interested would like to know the solution:
9 X 9=81, 3 X 4=12, and 81 plus 12 add up to 93.
Ferdowsi says, the Sultan's palm was just like
93. It means that the fist of the Sultan was so
tightly closed that only his thumb was free, and
this thumb along with the index finger (which
acquires the shape of 92 and other three fingers
make 93. Through this obscure statement Ferdowsi
wants to emphatically report the miserliness of
the Sultan.
We shall see whether there are actually any
enigmatic and abstruse verses in the Qur'an.
Such an assumption contradicts with the text of
the Qur'an which unequivocally states that it is
a clear and comprehensible book whose verses
provide guidance and shed light. The core of the
problem is that some of the issues dealt with in
the Qur'an are related to metaphysical matters
and the transcendental world, which cannot be
expressed in ordinary language. In the words of
Shaykh Shabistari:
The word fails to encompass meaning,
The ocean cannot be poured into a pot.
Since the language of the Qur'an is the same as
used by men, inevitably, the same diction is
used for the most sublime and spiritual themes
as we human beings use for earthly subjects. But
in order to prevent any misunderstanding about
certain problems, some verses have been devised
in such a way that they need to be explained
with the help of other verses. There is no way
except this. For example, the Qur'an wanted to
point out to a truth namely, seeing God through
the heart; that is, to witness the presence of
God by means of one's heart. This idea has been
expressed in the following terms:
(Some) faces on the Day shall be bright,
looking towards their Lord. (75:22-23)
Uniqueness of the Qur'an
The Qur'an makes use of the verb "looking," and
no other word more suitable could be available
for the expression of the desired sense. But to
avert the possibility of any doubt, the Qur'an
explains in other place:
Vision perceives Him not, and He
perceives all vision. (6:104)
The second verse makes the reader distinguish
between two different meanings conveyed by the
same word. In order to avoid any possibility of
ambiguity in its exalted themes, the Qur'an asks
us to check the mutashabihat against the
mahkamat:
He sent down upon thee the Book, wherein
are verses firm (ayat mahkamat) that are the
essence of the Book. (3:6)
Thereby, the Qur'an means that there are certain
verses whose firmness cannot be denied and other
meanings cannot be derived from them, except
their real ones. Such verses are the 'mother' of
the Book (umm al-kitab). In the same way as a
mother is the refuge to her child, or a
cosmopolitan city (umm al-qura) is the center of
small cities, al-ayat al-muhkamat are also
regarded as the axes of the mutashabihat.
Al-ayat al-mutashabihat are, of course, to be
cogitated upon and understood, but they are to
be pondered upon with the help of al-ayat
al-muhkamat. Any inference drawn without the
help of the mother-verses would not be correct
and reliable.
Is the Qur'an Understandable?
During the analysis and study of the Qur'an, the
first question that arises is whether the Qur'an
can be studied and understood. Has this book
been introduced for the purpose of studying and
understanding it, or whether it is just for
reading and reciting and obtaining reward and
blessing? The reader, possibly, may wonder at
raising of such a question. To him it may appear
beyond doubt that the Qur'an is meant for the
purpose of knowing and understanding it.
Nevertheless, in view of various undesirable
currents, which due to numerous reasons came
into existence in the Muslim world regarding the
question of understanding of the Qur'an, and
which had an important role in bringing about
the decline of Muslims, we shall discuss this
matter in brief. Regrettably, the roots of those
degenerate and dangerous notions still persist
in our societies. So I consider it necessary to
elaborate on this topic.
Among the Shi'ah scholars of three or four
centuries ago, there appeared a group which
believed that the Qur'an is not a hujjah
("proof", meaning a legal source usable for
vindication). Among the four sources of fiqh
that have been regarded as the criteria and
standard for the understanding of the Islamic
problems by Muslim scholars, i.e. the Qur'an,
the sunnah (tradition), 'aql
(reason) and ijma' (consensus of
opinion), they did not recognize three of them.
Regarding ijma', they said that it
belongs to the Sunni tradition and they could
not follow it. Concerning reason, they
maintained that reason can also err, and
reliance on reason is not legitimate. About the
Qur'an they respectfully asserted that the
Qur'an is greater in station than being subject
to study and comprehension by us humble human
creatures. It is only the privilege of the
Prophet and the Imams to ponder over the verses
of the Holy Qur'an. We ordinary human beings
have only the right to read and recite them.
This group was that of the Akhbariyun or
Akhbaris.
The Akhbaris regarded hadith and chronicles
as the only permissible sources of fiqh
(Islamic jurisprudence). One may be astounded to
learn that in some of the Qur'anic exegeses
written by these people, they mentioned only
those verses about which the tradition existed,
and refrained from mentioning other verses as if
they are not a part of the Qur'an.
Such a kind of practice was an injustice to
the Qur'an. This shows that a society that could
neglect and alienate their own heavenly book and
that too of the standard and stature of the
Qur'an, is not at all up to the Qur'anic
standards. Besides the Akhbaris there were other
groups who also regarded the Qur'an as
inaccessible to the ordinary human intellect.
Among them the Ash'arites can be named, who
believed that the knowledge of the Qur'an does
not necessarily mean that its verses should be
pondered over, but the real meanings are the
same as that the words literally communicate.
According to them, whatever we understand from
the outward meaning, we have to be satisfied
with it. We should not be concerned with the
secret and inner meanings. It was quite natural
that this sort of thinking regarding the Qur'an,
very rapidly, gave rise to serious deviations
and grave misunderstandings. Since they were
forced on the one hand to the task of
interpretation of the meaning of the Qur'anic
verses, and, on the other hand, banished reason
also from the realm of religious learning, as a
result, they were forced to adopt merely vulgar
and superficial interpretations of the Qur'anic
verses. On account of their faulty way of
thinking, they deviated from the regular course
of correct thinking, and thus gave way to
distorted and faulty religious vision. As the
result of this type of religious thinking,
heretical beliefs like the personification of
God the Almighty, and numerous other distorted
ideas like the possibility of visual perception
of God, His possession of physical
characteristics etc., came into existence.
Opposing the group which abandoned the
Qur'an, another group came into existence which
used the Qur'an as the means to fulfill their
selfish aims. They gave the Qur'anic verses such
interpretations as were favourable to their
selfish interests, and wrongfully attributed
certain ideas to the Qur'anic text that were not
at all in agreement with the spirit of the
Qur'an. In answer to every objection that was
made against them, they said that none except
themselves could understand the esoteric and
secret meaning of the Qur'anic verses, and
whatever they stated was based on the
understanding and knowledge of the esoteric
meaning of the verses.
The champions of this movement in the history
of Islam consist of two groups: the first group
are the Isma'ilis, who are also known as the
Batinis (secret sect), and the other are the
Sufis. Most of the Isma'ilis are found in India
and some of them are in Iran. They had formed an
empire in Egypt known as the Fatimid caliphate.
The Isma'ilis are so-called Shi'ahs who believe
in six Imams. But all the Twelver Imami Shi'ah
scholars are unanimous in the opinion that in
spite of their belief in six Imams, the
Isma'ilis stand at a greater distance from the
Shi'ite faith than the non-Shi'ite sects. The
Sunnis, who do not believe in any of the Imams
in the same sense as the Shi'ah do, nevertheless
are nearer to the Shi'ah than these "Six-Imami
Shi'ahs." The Isma'ilis, on account of their
batini beliefs and secretive practices have
played a treacherous role in the history of
Islam and have had a big hand in causing serious
deviations in the realm of Islam.
Besides the Isma'ilis, the Sufis are also
charged with distortion of the Qur'anic verses
and had a long hand in interpreting them
according to their personal beliefs. Here I
present a specimen of their exegesis so that the
extent and method of their misinterpretation may
be known:
The anecdote of Ibrahim (A) and his son
Isma'il is described by the Qur'an as follows:
It occurred to Ibrahim (A) in his dream that he
has to sacrifice his son for the sake of God. At
first he is perplexed regarding such an
instruction; but as he repeatedly has the dream
reiterating the same theme, he becomes certain
of the Will of God and decides to obey the
Divine command. He puts the whole matter before
his son, who also faithfully accepts his
father's proposal of executing the Divine
command:
"My son, I see in a dream that I shall
sacrifice thee; consider what thinkest
thou?" He said, "My father, do as thou art
bidden; thou shalt find me, God willing, one
of the steadfast." (37:102)
Here the aim is the expression of total
submission and resignation towards the Divine
decree. For the same reason the father and son
are ready to execute the Divine command with
whole-hearted purity and sincerity, but the
execution of the command was stopped by the Will
of God. But the same incident is interpreted by
the Sufis in this fashion: Ibrahim here
represents intellect and reason ('aql) and
Isma'il represents the self (nafs); the Qur'anic
anecdote is an allegory that hints at the
attempt of reason to murder the human self
(nafs).
It is obvious that such interpretation of the
Qur'an is like wanton treatment of it, and
presents a distorted perspective of its
teachings. It is in the context of such deviate
interpretations of the Qur'an based upon
personal or sectarian bias and interests that
the Prophet has said: One who interprets the
Qur'an according to his wish, should be certain
of his place in hell.
This kind of frivolous attitude towards the
verses of the Qur'an amounts to the betrayal of
the Qur'an and that too of a grievous degree.
The Qur'an itself strikes a middle course
between the stagnant and narrow-minded attitude
of the Akhbaris and the unwarranted and deviate
interpretations of the Batinis. It recommends a
course of sincere, disinterested study and asks
for unbiased and unprejudiced meditation over
its meanings. Not only the believers and the
faithful, but even the infidels are invited by
it to contemplate over its verses. The Qur'an
demands that it verses should be first
contemplated over, before forming any adverse
opinion against them. Addressing the opponents,
it says, why they don't ponder over the Qur'an,
what sort of hearts they possess, they are as if
shut close and sealed:
What, do they not ponder the Qur'an? Or
is it that there are locks upon their
hearts? (47:24)
The Qur'an also says in one of its verses:
(This is) a Book We have revealed to you
abounding in good, that they may ponder the
verses.
That is, We have not sent the Qur'an to be
kissed, embraced and put on the niche to gather
dust, but for men to read and to contemplate
about its contents:
That those endowed with understanding may
ponder its signs and so remember. (38:29)
The above verse and scores of other such verses
emphasize the importance of contemplation in the
Qur'an and interpretation of the Qur'anic
verses, although not an interpretation based on
personal caprices and bias, but a just, truthful
and balanced interpretation free of all traces
of selfish interests. If we try to comprehend
the Qur'an in an honest and unbiased way, it is
not at all necessary to solve all problems that
we find in it. In this regard the Qur'an is
similar to Nature. In Nature, too, a number of
mysteries have neither been solved yet, nor can
they be solved in present conditions, yet are
likely to be solved in the future. Moreover, in
studying and understanding nature, man has to
tailor his ideas in accordance with Nature
itself. He is forced to interpret Nature in
accordance with its reality. He cannot define
Nature in terms of his own caprices and
inclinations. The Qur'an, like the book of
Nature, is a book that has not been sent for a
specific age and time. Had it been otherwise,
all the secrets of the Qur'an would have been
discovered in the past; this heavenly Book would
not have presented its charm, freshness and
vitality. But we see that the possibility of
contemplation, reflection and discovery of new
dimensions is inexhaustible in the case of this
Holy Book. This is a point that has amply been
emphasized and clarified by the Prophet and the
Imams. In a tradition, it is related from the
Prophet (S) that the Qur'an, like the sun and
the moon, will present its movement and
continuity; that is, the Qur'an is not static or
monotonous. In some other place the Prophet has
said that outwardly the Qur'an is beautiful and
inwardly it is deep and unfathomable. In 'Uyun
akhbar al-Rida, from the Imam al-Rida (A), it is
quoted that Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq (A) was asked
about the secret of it that as the time passes
and the more it is read and recited, the Qur'an
increases in its novelty and freshness day by
day. The Imam al-Sadiq (A) answered:
Because the Qur'an is not for an
exclusive age or for an exclusive people.
The Qur'an has been sent for all ages and for
all human beings. It is so composed that in
spite of changes in knowledge, outlook and
approach through various times and ages, it
surpasses all learning and knowledge in all
ages. While it encompasses mysteries and
abstruse intricacies for the reader of every
age, at the same time it presents a great feast
of meanings and ideas that can satiate the needs
of every time in accordance with the capacity of
that particular age.
Issues in an Analytical Study of the Qur'an:
Now we shall proceed to study the contents of
the Qur'an from an analytic viewpoint. Of
course, if we were to deal with every subject of
the Qur'an separately, it would call for --as
Rumi would say-- seventy tons of paper. So we
will confine our discussion mainly to general
and then a few particular issues.
The Qur'an has dealt with a vast range of
subjects, and in this process, it is more
concerned with certain subjects and less with
others. The universe and its Creator are among
the most recurring themes of the Qur'an. We must
try to see how it treats this theme. Is its
outlook philosophical or gnostic? Is its
treatment similar to that of other religious
books like the Bible and the Torah? Is it
similar to that of the religious books of
Hinduism? Does it deal with this problem in its
own independent manner?
The other problem that is repeatedly treated
by the Qur'an is the problem of the universe or
the world of creation. We must examine the
outlook of the Qur'an about the universe. Does
it regard the universe and all creation to be an
exercise in vanity and futility or does it
regard it as being based on coherent truth? Does
it consider the state of affairs in the universe
as being based upon a series of laws and
principles, or does it regard it as a chaotic
phenomenon in which nothing is the cause or
condition of any other thing? Among the general
issues dealt by the Qur'an is the problem of the
human being. The Qur'anic outlook regarding the
human being must be analyzed. Does the Qur'an
possess an optimistic outlook of man? Does it
speak of him in pessimistic and negative terms?
Does the Qur'an consider man as a despicable
creature, or does it acknowledge his nobility
and dignity?
The other problem dealt with in the Qur'an is
the problem of human society. We have to see if
the Qur'an considers the society to be primary
and the individual as secondary or whether it
subordinates the society to the individual. Are
societies, according to the Qur'an, subject to
laws governing their life and death, their rise
and decline, or are these conditions applicable
to individuals alone? In the same way, its
conception of history also needs to be
clarified. What is the Qur'anic view regarding
history? What are the forces that control the
dynamics of history? To what extent can an
individual's influence affect the course of
history in the view of the Qur'an?
The Qur'an deals with numerous other issues.
I shall enumerate some of them here. One of them
is the point of view of the Qur'an about itself.
The other issue is related to the Prophet (S)
and its manner of introducing and addressing
him. Another issue is its definition of a
believer (mu'min) and his characteristics and so
on.
Furthermore, each of these general issues
possesses various branches and divisions. For
example, when discussing mankind and its
situation, it is natural to speak about
morality. Or, when speaking about society, the
problem of human relationships also unavoidably
enters the discussion. The same is true of such
notions as "enjoining good and forbidding evil,"
and the problem of social classes.
How does the Qur'an Introduce Itself?
For the purpose of analysing Qur'anic themes, it
is better to start by examining the opinion of
the Qur'an about itself and its manner of
self-introduction. The first and foremost thing
that the Qur'an pronounces about itself is that
all of its words, phrases and sentences are the
Word of God. It makes clear that the Prophet (S)
was not its author; rather the Prophet only
related whatever was revealed to him through the
agency of the Ruh al-Qudus (Gabriel) with the
permission of God.
The Qur'an describes its other function as
the presentation of the Prophetic mission, which
is aimed at guidance of humanity, by delivering
it from darkness and leading it towards light:
A Book We have sent down to thee that
thou mayest bring forth mankind from the
darkness into the light... (14:1)
Without doubt the darkness of ignorance is one
of the vices from which the Qur'an emancipates
humanity and leads it towards the light of
knowledge and wisdom. However, if merely
ignorance were regarded as darkness, then the
philosophers could have accomplished this job.
But there exist other evils more dangerous than
the vice of ignorance, and to subdue them is
beyond the power of sheer knowledge. Among them
are the vices of worship of material benefits,
egoism, enslavement to desires, and greed, which
are considered to be personal and moral vices.
Social vices like oppression and discrimination
manifest the spiritual darkness of a society. In
Arabic, the word zulm (injustice and oppression)
is derived from the same root as zulmah
(darkness), which shows that injustice is a form
of social and spiritual darkness. To struggle
against such forms of darkness is the
responsibility and mission of the Qur'an and
other heavenly books. Addressing Prophet Moses
(A), the Qur'an says:
That thou mayest bring forth your people
from the darkness into the light ... (14:5)
This darkness, this shadow, is the darkness of
Pharaoh's oppression and injustice and that of
his clique. The light is the light of justice
and freedom.
The exegetists of the Qur'an emphasize the
point that whenever the Qur'an mentions
darkness, it always uses it in the plural form
although it always uses light in its singular
form. This means that the word, (darkness)
includes all sorts of darkness, all of the evil
ways that lead towards darkness, and that
(light) signifies one single right path --the
path of righteousness, whereas the ways of
deviation and perversion are many. In Suurat
al-Baqarah, the Qur'an says:
God is the Protector of the believers; He
brings them forth from the darkness into the
light. And the unbelievers --their
protectors are taghut, that bring them forth
from the light into the darkness ...
(2:257)
The Qur'an determines its goal to be the
breaking of the chains of ignorance,
misguidance, moral and social corruption and
destruction, or in other words, to dissipate all
sorts of (darkness) and to guide humanity in the
direction of justice, goodness and light.
The Language of the Qur'an
The other issue is that of gaining familiarity
with the language of the Qur'an and the
recitation of it. There are some people who
think that the Qur'an is to be read merely for
the purpose of obtaining spiritual reward
(thawab) without need of understanding anything
of its contents. They continuously recite the
Qur'an, but if they are even once asked) "Do you
understand the meaning of what you are reading?"
they cannot answer. To recite the Qur'an is
essential and good, being regarded as the first
step necessary for comprehending its contents;
and not merely as a means for gaining Divine
reward.
The comprehension of the meaning of the
Qur'an has certain peculiarities to which due
attention must be paid. While other books are
read for the purpose of acquiring the knowledge
of novel ideas that merely involve reason and
the rational faculties of the reader's mind, the
Qur'an must be studied with the intention of
educating oneself. The Qur'an itself clarifies
this point:
A book We have sent down to thee,
blessed, that men possessed of mind may
ponder its signs end so remember. (38:29)
One of the functions of the Qur'an is to
instruct and to teach. For this purpose, the
Qur'an addresses human reason and speaks in
logical and demonstrative terms. There is also
another language that the Qur'an makes use of.
But this language is not used to appeal to the
faculty of reason, but to the heart. This is the
language of feeling. Whosoever wants to acquaint
himself with the Qur'an, should be familiar with
both of the languages and be able to make use of
both of them simultaneously. It is a grave
mistake to separate one from the other.
That which is termed here as the heart, is
the great source of profound feeling that
resides within all human beings. This is
sometimes also called "the sense of being", i.e.
the feeling of relationship between human
existence and the Absolute Being.
One who knows the language of the heart, when
he addresses the human being in this language,
can move the inner depths of his being. It is
not merely the mind and the intellect alone
which is affected, but his whole being, which is
profoundly influenced. This sort of influence
can perhaps be illustrated by the example of
music. The various forms of music share the
common quality which is stimulation of human
feelings. Music appeals to the human soul and
immerses it into a specific world of feeling.
The nature of feelings, excited by different
kinds of music, of course, varies. Certain types
of music may be associated with the passions of
valour and bravery. In the past, on the
battlefield, the effects of martial music were
evident. Sometimes its effects were so strong
that the frightened soldiers who would not dare
come out of their bunkers, were made to march in
fervour despite fierce attacks from enemy's
ranks. It is possible that certain other kinds
of music may excite sensual feelings and invite
the listener to succumb to sensual vices. The
results of such music are noticeable in the
moral waywardness of our own times. Perhaps no
other thing could have so effectively broken
down the walls of morality and chastity to the
extent of this kind of music. Other kinds of
instinctive feelings and passions, whether
aroused by means of music or by some other
means, can be controlled when addressed in the
language that appeals to them.
One of the most sublime instincts and
emotions present in all human beings is the urge
for religion and the natural quest for God. It
is in the same heavenly echoes that the Qur'an
speaks to the Divine instincts of mankind. The
Qur'an itself recommends that its verses be
recited in fine and beautiful rhythms; for it is
in those heavenly rhythms that it speaks to the
Divine nature of man. The Qur'an, describing
itself, maintains that it speaks in two
languages. Sometimes it introduces itself as the
Book of meditation, logic and demonstration; at
other times as the Book of feeling and love. In
other words, it does not merely seek to nourish
the intellect and thought, but also nurtures the
human soul.
The Qur'an lays great emphasis on its own
specific quality of music, a music which more
than any other music, is effective in arousing
the profound and sublime feelings of the human
heart. The Qur'an directs the believers to
devote a few hours of the night to reciting its
verses, and to recite them during their ritual
prayers when their attention is turned towards
God. Addressing the Prophet, the Qur'an says:
O thou enwrapped in thy robes, keep vigil
the night, except a little (a half of it, or
diminish a little, or add a little) and
chant the Qur'an very distinctly. (73:1 -4)
It asks the Prophet (S) to recite the Qur'an
while standing for the prayers. Tartiil means to
recite neither too hastily that words cannot be
distinguished, nor too slowly that their
connection be lost. It commands the Prophet (S)
to recite its verses rhythmically, and at the
same time to cogitate upon their meaning. Again,
in a later verse of the same surah, the Prophet
is reminded that he needs enough sleep to
effectively perform the daily chores of business
or jihad in the path of God; nevertheless, he
should not forget to seclude himself for
worship.
It were the same rhythms of the Qur'an that
became the singular source of spiritual joy and
strength, and the means of producing inner
purity and sincerity among Muslims. It was the
same music of the Qur'an which, in a very short
period of time, converted the barbarous tribes
of the Arabian peninsula, into a steadfast
nation of committed believers, who could grapple
with the greatest powers of the age and
overthrow them.
The Muslims did not merely view the Qur'an as
a book of moral advice and instruction alone,
but also, as a spiritual and ideological tonic.
They recited the Qur'an with devotion of heart
during their intimate nightly supplications, and
during the day, they derived from it the
strength to attack the unbelievers like roaring
lions. The Qur'an had just such an expectation
of those who had found their faith. Addressing
the Prophet, it says:
Obey not the unbelievers, but struggle
against them with it [the Qur'an] striving
mightily. (25:52)
The Qur'an advises the Prophet (S) not to pay
heed to the words of the infidels and to stand
firmly against them equipped with the weapon of
the Qur'an. It assures him that the ultimate
victory shall be his. The life of the Prophet
(S) itself is a positive proof of this
assurance. He stood all alone against enemies
without any support except the Qur'an, and the
same Qur'an meant everything to him. It produced
warriors for him, furnished arms and forces,
until, ultimately, the enemies were totally
subdued. The Qur'an drew towards him individuals
from the enemy's camp, and caused them to submit
before the Messenger of God. In this way the
Divine pledge was fulfilled.
When the Qur'an calls its language "the
language of the heart," it means the heart which
it seeks to purify, enlighten and stimulate.
This language is other than the language of
music that occasionally arouses sensual
feelings. It is also different from the language
of martial music that arouses the spirit of
heroism in the hearts of soldiers and
strengthens and enhances their enthusiasm.
Rather, it is the language which converted the
Arab Bedouins into inspired mujahidin, for whom
it was said:
They carried their visions on their
swords.
Those people carried their vision, their
ideology, their religion and spiritual
discoveries on their swords, and used them in
the defence of those ideals and ideas. The
notions of private and personal interest were
alien to them. Though they were not innocent and
infallible, and they did commit mistakes, yet
they were those who rightly fitted the
description:
Standing in prayer during nights,
fasting during daytime.
Every moment of day and night, they were in
contact with the depths of Being. Their nights
were passed in worship, and days in jihad.
It is on account of this characteristic, that
the Qur'an is a book of the heart and the soul.
Its appeal overwhelms the soul and brings tears
flowing from the eyes and makes the heart
tremble. It stresses this point and considers it
true even of the "People of the Book":
Those to whom We gave the Book before
this believe in it, and, when it is recited
to them, they say, 'We believe in it; surely
it is the Truth from our Lord; even before
it we were of those who surrender.
(28:52-53)
It describes a group of people who undergo a
state of veneration and awe when the Qur'an is
recited before them. They affirm faith in all
the contents of the Book, declare everything in
it to be nothing but truth and their veneration
of it continues to increase. In another verse,
the Qur'an affirms that among the Ahl al-Kitab
(The People of the Book), the Christians are
closer to the Muslims than the idolaters and
Jews. Then a group of Christians who believed
and became Muslims on hearing the Qur'an are
described in these words:
And when they hear what has been sent
down to the Messenger, thou seest their eyes
overflow with tears, because of the truth
they recognize. They say, "Our Lord we
believe; so do Thou write us down among the
witnesses." (5:83)
In another place, while describing the
believers, the Qur'an says:
God has sent down the fairest discourse
as a book, consimilar in its oft repeated
parts, whereat shiver the skins of those who
fear their Lord; then their skins and their
hearts soften to the remembrance of God ...
(39:23)
In these, as well as in many other verses (such
as 19:58, 61:1, etc.), the Qur'an tells us that
it is not merely a book of knowledge and
analysis; but at the same time that it makes use
of logical arguments that appeal to the
intellect, it also speaks to the finer
sensibilities of the human soul.
The Qur'an's Addressees:
Another point that has to be inferred from the
Qur'anic text during its analytical study, is to
determine the identity of those who are
addressed by it. There are certain expressions
like "guidance for the God fearing," "guidance
and good tiding for the believers," "to admonish
and caution him who is alive," which often recur
in the Qur'an. Here the question may arise: Of
what need is guidance for those who are already
guided, the pious and the righteous? Moreover,
we see that the Qur'an describes itself in these
words:
It is but a reminder unto all beings, and
you shall surely know its tiding, after a
while. (38:87-88)
Then, is this book meant for all the people of
the world, or is it for the believers alone? In
another verse addressing the Prophet, God the
Most Exalted, says:
We have not sent thee, save as a mercy
unto all beings. (21:107)
A more detailed explanation of this matter would
be undertaken during the course of later
discussion regarding the historical aspect of
the Qur'an. Here it is just sufficient to
mention that the Qur'an is addressed to all the
people of the world. It does not single out any
particular nation or group. Everyone who accepts
the invitation of the Qur'an is assured of
spiritual salvation. However, the verses which
mention the Qur'an as the book of guidance for
the believers and the God-fearing (mu'minun and
muttaqun), clearly specify the kind of people
who will be attracted towards it and others who
will turn away from it. The Qur'an never names
any particular nation or tribe as being its
devotees. It does not take sides with a
specially chosen people. Unlike other religions,
the Qur'an never associates itself with the
interests of any specific class. It does not
say, for example, that it has come to safeguard
the interests of the workers or the peasants.
The Qur'an repeatedly emphasizes the point that
its purpose is to establish justice. Speaking
about the prophets, it says:
And We sent down with them the Book and
the Balance so that men might uphold justice
... (57:25)
The Qur'an advocates justice for all mankind,
not merely for this or that class, tribe or
nation. It does not, for example, like Nazism
and other such cults, stir up the passions of
prejudice to attract people. Similarly, it does
not, like certain schools of thought like
Marxism, base its appeal upon the human weakness
of interest-seeking and enslave-ment to material
motivations to incite people; because the Qur'an
believes in the essential primariness of the
rational consciousness of man and his intrinsic
conscience. It believes that it is on the basis
of its moral potentialities and its
truth-conscious human nature that mankind is
placed firmly on the path of progress and
evolution. This is the reason why its message is
not limited to the working or farming class or
exclusively to the oppressed and deprived. The
Qur'an addresses both the oppressors as well as
the oppressed, and calls them to follow the
right path. Prophet Moses (A) delivers the
message of God to both Bani Israel and Pharaoh,
and asks them to believe in the Lord and to move
in His path. Prophet Muhammad (S) extends his
invitation both to the chieftains of Quraysh and
to ordinary persons like Abu Dharr and 'Ammar.
The Qur'an cites numerous examples of an
individual's revolt against his own self and his
voluntary return from the path of deviation to
the straight one. But, at the same time, the
Qur'an is aware of the point that the
restoration and repentance of those immersed in
a life of luxury and opulence is comparatively
more difficult than that of those familiar with
the hardships of life: the oppressed and the
deprived, who are, as a matter of fact,
naturally more inclined towards justice; whereas
the rich and wealthy, at the very first step,
have to forgo their personal and class interests
and abandon their wishes and aspirations.
The Qur'an declares that its followers are
those who have a clear and pure conscience. They
are drawn to it solely by the love of justice
and truth, which is ingrained in the nature of
all human beings ---not under the urge for
material interests and worldly desires and
allurements.
Conception of Reason in the Qur'an
Heretofore we have discussed briefly the diction
of the Qur'an, and said that, for the purpose of
communicating its message, the Qur'an makes use
of two types of languages, namely, the language
of rational argument and the language of
feeling. Each of these languages has a specific
appeal. The first type addresses and appeals to
the intellect or reason, while the second one is
meant to appeal to the heart. Now we shall
examine the point of view of the Qur'an
regarding reason ('aql).
It is to be seen whether or not the Qur'an
acknowledges the "authority" (hajjah) of reason
--as the scholars of fiqh (Islamic
jurisprudence) and usul put it. This
means whether or not we should respect the
judge-ments of reason and act according to them
if they happen to be correct and rightly deduced
by it. Moreover, if one acts according to the
dictates of reason and occasionally falls into
error, will God exonerate him for it, or whether
He will punish him on account of that error?
And, if one fails to act according to the ruling
of reason, does he deserve punishment?
Evidence in Favour of the Authority of
Reason
The issue of the authority of reason in Islam is
certain. Since the earliest times until the
present, none amongst the Islamic scholars
--except for a very small number-- has ever
negated the authority of reason; they have
counted it as one of the four sources of Islamic
fiqh.
1. The Qur'an's Emphasis on Rationalism
Since our discussion is about the Qur'an, I
think it necessary to produce arguments
concerning the authority of reason from the
Qur'an itself. The Qur'an, in various ways,
confirms the authority of reason. About sixty to
seventy verses can be cited --and that, too, for
just one of the various ways, as mentioned-- in
which the Qur'an indicates that such and such a
matter has been mentioned for reason to reflect
on. In one instance, the Qur'an refers to this
issue in a striking statement:
Surely the worst of beasts in God's sight
are those that are deaf and dumb and do not
reason. (8:22)
Of course, it is obvious that the Qur'an does
not mean the physically deaf and dumb, but those
who do not want to listen to truth, or those
who, when they hear, do not wish to admit it
with their tongues. In the view of the Qur'an,
the ears which are unable to listen to truth and
which are only used for listening to absurd and
nonsensical things, are deaf. The tongue which
is merely used to utter nonsense, is dumb. The
people who do not reason, are those who do not
make use of their intellect and their faculty of
thought. Such are not fit to be called human
beings. The Qur'an includes them among the
beasts. In another verse, while bringing up a
subject related to Divine Unity (al-tawhid), the
Qur'an refers to the issue of unity of Divine
Acts, and says:
It is not for any soul to believe, save
by the leave of God... (10:100)
After stating this profound issue --a problem
which is not easily comprehensible to every
human mind-- the Qur'an continues the verse like
this:
And He lays abomination upon those who do
not reason. (10:100)
In these two verses, which I quote here for the
sake of example, the Qur'an, in the terms of
logic, invites us to ratiocination. There are
many other verses in the Qur'an which, on the
basis of consequential signification, can be
said to accept the authority of reason. In other
words, the Qur'an makes statements which cannot
be accepted without accepting the authority of
reason. For instance, an opponent is asked to
forward rational argument in favour of his
position:
Say: Bring your proof if you are
truthful. (2:111)
This can only be inferred to mean the Qur'an's
ratification of the authority of reason. In
another place it uses syllogistic argument to
prove the existence of the Necessary Being
(wajib al-wujud):
Were there gods in them [earth and
heaven] other than God, they would surely
disintegrate ... (21:22)
In these verses the Qur'an has framed a
conditional proposition, which exempts or
excludes the antecedent premise for arriving at
a conclusion which is consequent upon it. Thus
the Qur'an aims at emphasizing the role of
reason and refutes the view of some of the
religions that faith is alien to, or, is
incompatible with reason, and that to embrace
faith one has to suspend his rational faculty
and concentrate upon heart alone, so that it may
absorb the Divine light and become illuminated
by it. This view is totally negated and refuted
by the Qur'an.
2. References to the Law of Causality
The other argument that supports the view that
the Qur'an approves of the ultimate authority of
reason, is that it defines various problems in
terms of cause-and-effect relationship. The
cause-and-effect relation-ship, or the law of
causation, is the foundation of rational
thinking. This law is honoured by the Qur'an and
is also employed by it. The Qur'an speaks on
behalf of God, the Almighty, the Creator of the
system of cause and effect. Despite the fact
that His Word transcends the limitations of
causality, the Qur'an is not oblivious of
pointing out to the system of causality
operating in the universe; it views all
phenomena and events as being subservient to
this system. The following verse supports this
view:
God changes not what is in a people,
until they change what is in themselves ...
(13:11)
The Qur'an intends to say that, although all
destinies depend on the Will of God, He never
imposes upon human beings such fate as is
outside and alien to their determination, will
and action. The destinies of societies also
change according to their intrinsic system of
functioning. God does not extravagantly alter
the destiny of a nation without any specific
reason, unless they themselves bring about a
major change in their system of social and moral
values and their manner of performing their
individual duties.
The Qur'an urges Muslims to study the
conditions and circumstances of societies of the
past and to take lesson from their history. It
is evident that if the destinies of races and
nations were random, or dependent upon
accidents, or were prescribed from above, the
advice to study and draw a lesson would not have
any sense. By laying emphasis on it, the Qur'an
intends to remind us that a uniform system of
laws governs the destinies of all the nations of
the world. It also reminds us that if the
conditions of a society in which we live, are
similar to the conditions prevalent in a society
of the past, the same fate awaits us too.
Elsewhere, the Qur'an says:
How many a city We have destroyed in its
evildoing, and now it is fallen down upon
its turrets. How many a ruined well, a tall
palace. What, have they not journeyed in the
land so that they have hearts to understand
with, or ear to hear with ... ? (22:45-46)
From this statement, we can infer that the
affirmation of the law of causality and the
approval of the cause-and-effect relationship,
imply the acceptance of authority of reason.
3. Rational Basis of Divine Commands
Another argument which proves that the Qur'an
believes in the ultimate authority of reason, is
that the Qur'an always explains the rationale
behind its commands, laws and precepts. The
scholars of usul al-din (the principles of the
Faith) maintain that the harms and benefits
caused by human deeds are among the reasons
behind laws and commands. For example, while at
one place the Qur'an ordains the performance of
prayers, in another place it explains the
philosophy of prayer:
Indeed prayer forbids indecency and
dishonour ... (29:45)
It mentions the spiritual effects of prayer, and
states how the prayer can edify man. It explains
that it is on account of this exaltation that
man can dissociate himself from indecencies.
Elsewhere, after laying down rules for observing
the fast, the Qur'an explains the rationale for
its command:
Prescribed for you is the Fast, even as
it was prescribed for those that were before
you --haply you will be God-fearing.
(2:183)
Similarly, with respect to other commandments
like those regarding zakat (alms) and jihad, the
Qur'an clarifies their necessity for individual,
as well as for society. In this way, the Qur'an,
not withstanding the transcendental nature of
Divine commandments, clarifies fully their
worldly and terrestrial relevance, and asks men
to cogitate upon their rationale until their
meaning becomes explicit, so that it may not be
imagined that these laws are based on a series
of occult notions beyond the power of human
comprehension.
4. Combating Deviations of Reason
Another evidence in favour of the Qur'an's
affirmation of the authority of reason --which
is more conclusive than that mentioned above--
is the battle it launched against all those
agents which obstruct the proper functioning of
reason. For clarification of this point, we are
forced to mention certain things in the way of
an introduction.
The human mind can, in many cases, fall into
error. This fact is acknowledged by all of us.
However, this danger is not limited to the
intellect alone, but can equally befall the
senses, and feelings as well. Just for the sense
of vision, scores of visual errors and optical
illusions have been pointed out. In the case of
reason, too, there are times when people frame
an argument and rationale and draw an inference
on its basis, but later on they realize that the
basis of their conclusion was erroneous. Here
the question arises, whether the faculty of
reason should be suspended on account of its
occasional failures, or whether we should employ
other means for discovering the errors of the
intellect and seek to avoid such errors. In
answering this question, the Sophists said that
reason should not be relied upon, and that,
basically, argumentation and reasoning is an
absurd practice. Other philosophers have given a
fitting reply to the Sophists, and said that
though the senses can also err like reason, but
no one has ever recommended their suspension.
Since it was not possible to discard reason, the
philosophers resolved to find ways of making
reason secure from error. During their efforts
in this regard, they discovered that all
arguments consist of two parts, namely, matter
and form. Like a building which has various
ingredients in its construction, like, lime,
cement, steel, etc. (matter), to acquire a
specific structure (form). In order to attain
the permanence and perfection of its
construction, it is essential to procure proper
material as well as to draw a perfect and
faultless plan. For the correctness and accuracy
of an argument, too, it is essential that its
content and form be both free of error and
defect. For judging the validity of the form of
any argument, the Aristotelian or formal logic
came into existence. The function of formal
logic is to determine the accuracy or inaccuracy
of the form of an argument, and help the mind to
avoid errors in the process of reasoning.
But the major problem that remains is that
solely formal logic is inadequate for this
purpose, because it cannot alone guarantee the
validity of an argument. It can give assurance
about one aspect alone. To obtain the perfection
of the material aspect, the use of material
logic is also essential, that is, we need
certain criteria for controlling the quality of
the rational material.
Thinkers like Bacon and Descartes strove hard
to evolve some kind of material logic similar to
the formal logic of Aristotle, which was devised
for formal reasoning. They did obtain certain
criteria in this regard, though they are not as
universal as those of Aristotelian logic, but
are, to a limited extent, helpful in preventing
the mind from committing errors in reasoning.
Some may be surprised to know that the Qur'an
has presented such principles for the prevention
of any lapses in the process of reasoning, which
surpass in merit and precedence the efforts of
philosophers like Descartes and others.
The Qur'anic Viewpoint
Regarding the Sources of Error
Among various sources of error mentioned by the
Qur'an, one is that of taking conjecture and
hypothesis for certainty and conviction. If a
person were to adhere to the principle of
putting conviction only in certainties and of
not confusing between conjectures and
certainties, he would not fall into error. The
Qur'an lays great emphasis on this problem, and
has clearly stated in one place that one of the
biggest errors of the human mind is pursuit of
conjectures and hypotheses. In another verse,
which is addressed to the Prophet (S), the
Qur'an says:
If thou obeyest the most part of those on
earth, they will lead thee astray from the
path of God: they follow only surmise,
merely conjecturing. (6:116)
In another verse, the Qur'an says:
And pursue not that thou has no knowledge
of ... (17:36)
This is the word of caution to mankind extended
by the Qur'an, for the first time in the history
of human ideas, warning mankind against this
kind of error.
The second source of error in the reasoning
process, which is particularly relevant in
social issues, is imitation. Most people are
such that they accept whatever beliefs that are
current in their society. They adopt certain
beliefs merely for the reason that they were
followed by their preceding generation. The
Qur'an bids people to carefully scrutinize all
ideas and judge them by the criteria of reason
--neither to follow blindly the conventional
beliefs and traditions of their ancestors, nor
to reject them totally without any rational
justification. It reminds us that there are many
false doctrines that were introduced in the
past, but were accepted by the people, and there
are also certain truths that were presented in
the distant past, but people resisted them on
account of their ignorance. In accepting any
ideas or principles, men are advised to make use
of their intellects and rational faculties, and
not to indulge in blind imitation. Very often,
the Qur'an puts imitation of ancestors in direct
opposition to reason and intellect:
And when it is said to them: 'Follow what
God has sent down', they say, 'No; but we
will follow such things as we found our
fathers doing.' What? Even if their fathers
had no understanding of anything, and if
they were not guided ? (2:170)
The Qur'an constantly reiterates the view that
the idea of antiquity of an idea is neither the
evidence of its falsity, nor is it a testimony
of its truthfulness. Antiquity affects material
objects; but the eternal truths of existence
never become old and outmoded. Truths like:
God changes not what is in a people,
until they change what is in themselves ...
(13:11)
are true for ever and ever. The Qur'an asks us
to face issues with the weapon of reason and
intellect. One should neither forsake a belief
for fear of becoming the target of others'
ridicule and banter, nor should he accept a
belief just because it is upheld by some
important and well- known persons. We should
ourselves study and investigate the roots of all
matters and draw our own conclusions.
A Third effective source of error pointed out
by the Qur'an is
Selfish motives tarnish virtue and
merit,
A cascade of curtains gallops from the
heart towards vision.
Unless one maintains objectivity and neutrality
in every matter, he is unlikely to think
correctly. Reason can function properly only in
an atmosphere that is free of selfish desires
and motives. A well-known anecdote of al-Allamah
al-Hilli, can illustrate this point.
A problem of fiqh was put before
al-Allamah al-Hilli: If an animal falls inside a
well, and the carcass cannot be removed; what
should be done with the well? Incidentally,
during the same days, an animal happened to fall
into the well in his own house, and it became
inevitable for him to deduce an injunction to
solve his own problem, too There were two
possible ways to solve the issue: Firstly, the
well should be totally closed, not to be used
again; secondly, a fixed quantity of water
should be emptied from the well and the rest of
well's water would be clean and usable. The
'Allamah realized that he could not give a
completely impartial verdict about the problem
without interference from his own personal
interest. Accordingly, he ordered his own well
be closed. Then, with an easy mind, free of the
pressure of selfish motives. he turned to
deducing the details of verdict in the second
case.
The Qur'an contains a large number of
warnings regarding the evil of submission to
personal desires. The following is just one
instance of it:
They follow nothing except conjecture,
and what the self desires ... (53:25)
Qur'anic Outlook Regarding the "Heart"
Perhaps I need not explain here that in the
language of literature and mysticism the term
heart does not mean the organ situated in the
left side of the human body, which pumps blood
into the blood vessels. What is implied is the
sublime and distinguishing faculty of the human
soul, as can be readily understood from the
following examples from the Qur'an and verses of
Sa'di:
Surely in that there is a reminder to him
who has a heart ... (50:37)
My heart was alarmed
[on sensing the coming danger],
While I, a thoughtless dervish,
Do not know what
this wandering prey has come across.
These two examples make it obvious that the
connoted meaning of the heart is quite different
from the bodily organ. Elsewhere, the Qur'an
refers to the ailments of the heart:
In their hearts is a sickness, and God
has increased that sickness ... (2:10)
To cure this sickness is beyond the powers of
any man of medicine, even the heart specialist;
only the doctors of the spirit can diagnose such
diseases and suggest proper remedies.
Definition of the Heart
What is the definition of this heart then? An
answer to this question is to be sought in the
reality of human existence. Every human being,
although he is a single individual, possesses
myriads of existential dimensions. The human
"self" encompasses myriads of thoughts, desires,
fears, hopes and inclinations. Like the ocean
which links all rivers with one another, all
these components of the human personality are
related to the same center, which unites them
with one another. The "self" itself is the deep
and unfathomable ocean, whose depths no one can
claim to have charted out and to have discovered
all its mysteries. Philosophers mystics, and
psychologists --each of them has tried in his
own specific way to explore its depths, and has
succeeded only to a certain degree in
discovering its secrets. Perhaps the mystics, a
bit more than others, have been successful in
this regard. What the Qur'an refers to as the
heart, is the reality of that ocean, which
includes all that we name as the manifestations
of the soul, to which all its rivers and
tributaries are connected. Even reason is one of
the various rivers associated with this sea.
In places where the Qur'an speaks of
revelation, it does not make any mention of
reason; rather it is merely concerned with the
heart of the Prophet (S). This does not mean an
absence of rational and demonstrative reception
of the Holy Qur'an on the part of the Prophet,
but it was his heart which, in a state that we
cannot imagine, obtained the direct experience
and awareness of those transcendental realities.
The verses of Suurat al-Najm and Suurat
al-Takwir describe the state of this union to
some extent:
Nor speaks he out of caprice. This is
naught but a revelation revealed taught him
by one terrible in power, very strong; he
stood poised, being on the higher horizon,
then drew near and approached nearer, two
bow's length away, or nearer, then revealed
to His servant that He revealed. His heart
lies not of what he saw. (53:3-11)
The Qur'an mentions all these things to show
that these matters are basically beyond the
range of rational understanding.
Truly this is the word of a noble
messenger having power, of honoured place
with the Lord of the Throne, obeyed,
moreover trusty. Your companion is not
possessed; he truly saw him on the clear
horizon; he is not niggardly of the Unseen.
(81:19-23)
Muhammad Iqbal offers a fine interpretation of
this subject. He says that the prophet is one
who, at first, imbibes the entire truth, and
later on, in order to enrich the world and to
alter the course of history, communicates
everything that has reached him by the way of
Revelation.
Wherever the Qur'an speaks of the revelation
and the heart, al- though its import transcends
the limits of reason and thought, its speech is
not irrational or anti-rational. It expounds a
vision which surpasses human reason and
sensibility, and enters a domain which is,
basically, beyond reason and intellect.
Characteristics of the Heart
The Qur'an regards the heart, also, as an
instrument of understanding. In fact, the
greater part of the Qur'anic message is
addressed to the human heart --a message which
is audible to the ears of the heart alone, and
is inscrutable to other receptive faculties.
Accordingly, it attaches great importance to the
care, protection, and development of this
instrument. In the Qur'an, we recurrently come
across such notions as purification of the self,
purity and enlightenment of the heart, and
purification of the heart:
Prosperous is he who purifies it [the
self]. (91:9)
No indeed; but that they were earning has
overwhelmed their hearts. (83:14)
And about the salvation and enlightening of the
heart, the Qur'an says:
If you fear God, He will assign you [the
capacity of] distinguishing ...(8:29)
But those who struggle in Our [cause],
surely We shall guide them in Our ways...
(29:69)
Contrarily, the Qur'an recurrently reminds that
indecencies infect and darken the human soul,
and deprive the human heart of sublime
inclinations and virtuous tendencies. At one
place, speaking on behalf of the believers, it
says:
Our Lord, make not our hearts to swerve
after Thou hast guided us ... (3:8)
Describing the qualities of the evildoers, the
Qur'an says:
No indeed; but that they were earning has
overwhelmed their hearts. (83:14)
The darkness of sin and injustice has engulfed
their hearts:
When they swerved, God caused their
hearts to swerve ... (61:5)
About the sealing and hardening of the hearts,
it says:
God has set a seal on their hearts and on
their hearing, and on their eyes is a
covering ... (2:7)
And also:
We lay veils upon their hearts lest they
understand it ... (6:25) So does God seal
the hearts of the unbelievers. (7:101) So
that their hearts have become hard, and many
of them are ungodly. (57:16)
All these verses point to the fact that the
Qur'an recommends a sublime, spiritual
atmosphere for mankind, and deems it necessary
for every individual to strive to keep it clean
and unpolluted. In addition, since an unsound
social atmosphere renders fruitless the efforts
of most individuals to keep pure and wholesome,
the Qur'an recommends that the people should
employ all their endeavour in the direction of
purification of their social atmosphere. The
Qur'an unequivocally propounds the view that the
continued existence of all those sublime values,
beliefs and ideas, and continued social
receptivity to all its moral advice and
counsels, depend upon individual and collective
struggle to eradicate all types of meanness,
sensuality, and lewdness.
Human history itself is a witness to the fact
that whenever despotic regimes have wanted to
bring other societies under their autocratic
rule, they have tried to corrupt their social
spirit and pollute their social atmosphere. They
provided enormous facilities for the people to
indulge in licentiousness, and gave them every
kind of freedom in this regard. A heart-rending
account of this unholy treatment meted out to
Muslims of Spain --a region which is regarded to
have played an effective role in initiating the
Renaissance, and had the most advanced culture
in Europe-- throws enough light on this
phenomenon. In order to divest Spain out of
Muslims' hands, the Christians resorted to
defilement of the morals of Muslim youth, by
providing ample facilities for their
debaucheries. They even went to the extent of
alluring and enticing the army generals and
government officials in topmost ranks. They thus
succeeded in diverting Muslims from the path of
determination and purpose, and in divesting them
of their power, their strength of faith, and
purity of soul, converting them into profligate
weaklings addicted to drinking and
licentiousness. It is obvious that it is not
very difficult to subdue such individuals.
Christians took revenge on nearly eight hundred
years of Muslim rule in such a way that history
is ashamed at recounting those deeds. The same
Christians who, according to the teachings of
Jesus Christ ("offer your left cheek if your
right cheek is slapped"), were supposed to
behave in a different way, surpassed the
bloodthirsty tradition of Genghiz Khan by the
massacre of Muslims in Spain. Nevertheless, the
ruin that Muslims suffered was the result of
their own spiritual degeneration and decay; it
was their punishment for abandoning the Qur'anic
commands.
In our times, also, wherever the evil of
colonialism exists, the same practices are
vigorously adopted --a danger against which the
Qur'an so emphatically warns us. The
colonialists try to corrupt the hearts; when the
heart is thus debilitated, reason, too, is not
only lost and fails to function properly, but is
itself turned into a terrible bondage. The
colonialists and the exploitive powers are not
afraid of establishing schools and universities:
they even advocate popular education; but, on
the other hand, they take good care to make
arrangements to corrupt and destroy the spirit
of students, and of the teachers as well. They
are fully aware of the fact that an unhealthy
mind and a sickly soul cannot make any decisive
move, and readily yield to every type of
exploitation and degradation.
That is why the Qur'an gives ample importance
to the idea of exaltation, edification, and
purity of the soul of society. In one of its
verses, it says:
And help one another to piety and
God-fearing, do not help each other to sin
and enmity... (5:2)
Men are, firstly, enjoined to pursue piety and
are warned against sinning; secondly, they are
asked to perform righteous deeds collectively,
not individually.
Here I shall mention two or three sayings of
the Prophet (S) and the Imams (A) in order to
elucidate this point. There is a tradition that
once a person came in the presence of the
Prophet (S) and told him that he wished to ask
certain questions. The Prophet asked him whether
he wanted to listen to the answers, or if he
wished to ask questions first. He asked the
Prophet (S) to give the answers. The Prophet (S)
told him that his question was concerned with
the meaning of virtue and goodness. The man
affirmed that he intended to ask exactly the
same question. The Prophet gently knocked the
man's chest with his three fingers, saying: "Put
this question to your own heart;" then he added:
"This heart is so made that it is harmonious
with virtue; it is put at ease by virtue and
piety, but disturbed by vice and villainy. In
the same way, as presence of an alien
disharmonious object in the human body causes
uneasiness and discomfort, and disturbs its
order, the human soul is thrown off its balance
and ease on account of faulty behaviour." What
is commonly called the pain and torment of the
conscience, is the same state of inconformity
and alienation of the soul:
[For an honest insight] ask your own
heart, though the masters may have their own
(different) opinion.
The Prophet (S) points out the fact that if a
person endeavours to seek reality and truth with
an open and impartial mind, his heart can never
deceive him in this regard; it will always guide
him towards the straight path. Basically, as
long as man is in search of truth and reality,
and treads the path of truth, whatever he
encounters in this course is nothing but truth.
This is, of course, a very delicate point which
is often misunderstood. When someone falls into
misguidance and loses his path, it is because he
was following a certain direction which was not
determined by sincere search of truth. Answering
someone who had asked the Prophet, "What is
virtue?," he said, "If you really want to know
what is virtue, then understand that when your
heart is serene and your conscience at rest,
whatever has caused them to be such, is virtue.
But when you are attracted towards something,
and that does not bring peace and serenity to
your heart, then you should know that it is vice
and sin."
Elsewhere, when the Prophet (S) was asked
about the meaning of faith (iman), he said,
"When one performs an ugly deed, and is
overwhelmed with the feeling of reproach and
displeasure, and when one performs virtuous
deeds and feels happy and joyous, it means that
he is endowed with faith."
It has been quoted from Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq
(A) that when a believer liberates himself from
all worldly bondages, he feels the delight of
nearness to God within his heart; in this state,
the whole world appears to him very small and
insignificant; he strives with all power to
liberate himself from the bondages of the
material world. This is a reality attested by
the lives of the men of God.
In the biographies of the Prophet (S), it is
written that once after his morning prayers the
Prophet (S) went to visit the Ashab al-Suffah.
They were a group of poor men who did not
possess any worldly belongings, and used to live
by the side of Prophet's Mosque in al-Madinah.
When the Prophet (S) happened to see one of
them, Harith ibn Zayd, who looked rather pale
and emaciated, his eyes sunk deep inside his
skull, he inquired, "How are you." He answered,
"I have woken up a man of certain faith." The
Prophet asked him what proved his claim. He
answered, "I am bereft of sleep at nights and
engage in fasting during the days." The Prophet
told him that this was insufficient. "Tell me
more about it," he said. Harith said, "O
Messenger of God, my condition is such that I
can clearly see and hear the people of heaven
and those of hell. If you permit me, I will
inform you about the secret thoughts and inner
states of every one of your companions." The
Prophet bade him hold his tongue, and say no
more; but asked him, "What is your desire?" He
said, "To fight in the way of God."
According to the Qur'an, furbishing of the
human heart exalts a human being to such a point
that, in the words of Ali (A), even if the veils
that conceal the Unseen be removed from in front
of him, there is nothing that can enhance his
faith. The teachings of the Qur'an are meant to
educate man to become a being equipped with the
power of knowledge and reason on the one hand,
and possessed of a pure heart and sound feeling
on the other. They aim to train a human being
who is able to employ his reason and heart in
the most proper and exalted fashion. The Imams
(S) and their true pupils were examples of such
human beings. |