Al-Huda
Foundation, NJ U. S. A
the Message Continues ... 7/115
Newsletter for March 2011
Article 1 - Article 2 - Article 3 - Article 4 - Article 5 - Article 6 - Article 7 - Article 8 - Article 9 - Article 10 - Article 11 - Article 12
Islam, the Qur'an and the Arabic Literature
by Elsayed M.H Omran
Since the advent of Islam and the revelation of the Qur'an
in the early years of the seventh century AD, the Muslim Holy
Book has been the subject of many extensive analytical studies.
The focus of the great majority of these studies has been the
theological and legislative aspects of the Holy Book, for the
Qur'an provides Muslims with detailed guidance on their everyday
problems. Together with the sayings, actions, and
recommendations of Muhammad, the Qur'an has been the ultimate
source of legal authority for Muslims over the past fourteen
centuries. Muslim scholars have painstakingly examined, analyzed
and interpreted the various verses of the Holy Book, detailing
the requirements the Qur'an imposes on Muslims in order for them
to achieve spiritual purity. Thus, in addition to its
legislative and theological value, the Qur'an has also served as
a source of spiritual guidance for the followers of Islam.
There is, however, another aspect of the Qur'an which has
received far less attention than its theological and legislative
guidance, namely its linguistic significance, for the Qur'an was
undoubtedly the first book to be composed in Arabic. The advent
of Islam and the revelation of the Qur'an have had far-reaching
effects on the status, the content, and the structure of the
Arabic language. [1] This paper will examine the linguistic
influence of the Qur'an and the impact of its revelation on
Arabic. It will be argued that, while the Arabic language was
extremely effective as the medium for the revelation of the Holy
Qur'an and the dissemination of the new faith, the language
benefited enormously from the new role it acquired with the
advent of Islam.
Islam and Arabic: a unique relationship
The revelation of the Qur'an in Arabic set the scene for a
unique and lasting relationship between the language and Islam.
On the one hand, Arabic provided a very effective medium for
communicating the message of the religion. On the other hand,
Islam helped Arabic to acquire the universal status which it has
continued to enjoy since the Middle Ages, emerging as one of the
principal world languages. It has been argued that Arabic has
not simply remained 'ancilliary to Islam' [2] but that it has
also been significant as a means of 'cultural and national
revival in the Arabic-speaking countries.' [3] Arabic is a rich
and expressive language and has played an important role in the
cultural preservation of the Arabic-speaking people. However,
without the bond it has had with Islam, Arabic would probably
not have undergone the internal revolution it did, nor expanded
beyond the borders of the Arabian Peninsula with such speed and
magnitude.
The relationship of Islam and the Qur'an to Arabic involves more
than just the use of a language to communicate a divine message.
There are a number of factors which set this relationship apart
from that which exists between other holy books and the
languages in which they appeared, for Arabic has come to be
closely associated with Islam, and in this way has acquired a
semi-official status. It is implicit that anyone professing
Islam cannot ignore the role Arabic plays in his faith.
Embracing Islam, therefore, entails exposure to, and familiarity
with, the Arabic language. Such familiarity is necessitated by
the fact that memorization and recitation of Qur'anic verses in
their original language is necessary for the performance of the
daily rituals. Other holy books may have had an impact on the
languages in which they originally appeared, but the impact that
Islam and the Qur'an have had on Arabic appears to be unique in
its extent and durability. It has often been the case that a
holy book appears in a given language and is then translated
into other languages, in which it continues to be read and
recited during the performance of rituals, but, in the case of
the Qur'an, although it has been translated into many languages,
these translations cannot replace the original language as a
language of worship, which continues to be Arabic for all
Muslims, native speakers and others.
Other holy books also came to be associated with specific
languages, such as the Torah with Hebrew, and, perhaps less
intimately, the New Testament with Greek and Latin. However, the
nature of the relationship between the Qur'an and Arabic is
still unique for reasons to be given below.
The Qur'an: Muhammad's strongest argument
It has often been argued that the Qur'an is not only the first
book, and the highest linguistic achievement, of the Arabic
language, but that it is also Muhammad's strongest argument
against those who doubted his Message. The question that needs
to be addressed here concerns the reason why a holy book, a
composition of language, should be hailed as Islam's (and
Muhammad's) strongest argument. [4] The point has sometimes been
made that other prophets had more tangible miracles. In the case
of Muhammad, however, the miracle was not comparable to Moses'
staff or Christ's healing powers, but was simply the expression
in language of the Qur'an.
To understand why Muhammad's strongest argument or miracle was a
book, the Holy Qur'an, it is necessary to understand the role
language and linguistic composition played in the lives of the
pre-Islamic Arabs. It is also important to understand the nature
of the Arabic language itself during the pre-Islamic period.
This understanding will help to show why the revelation of the
Qur'an through Muhammad found attentive ears among his
contemporaries, who not only were articulate users of the
language but held those skilled in the arts of linguistic
composition in high esteem. [5]
The role played by language in pre-Islamic Arabia
Before the rise of Islam, Arabic was mainly a spoken language
with an oral literature of elaborate poetry and, to a lesser
extent, prose. [6] Writing had not yet fully developed and
memorization was the most common means of preserving the
literature. [7] Both poetry and prose in the pre-Islamic era
dealt with a rather limited range of topics which included in
the case of poetry praise, eulogy (panegyric), defamation, and
love, and in the case of prose superstition, legends, parables,
and wisdom tales. [8]
Pre-Islamic Arabs took great pride in their language and in
articulate and accurate speech, the latter being one of the main
requisites for social prominence. On this particular point,
Professor Hitti writes:No people in the world manifest such
enthusiastic admiration for literary expression and are moved by
the word, spoken or written, as the Arabs. Hardly any language
seems capable of exercising over the minds of its users such an
irresistible influence as Arabic. [9]
What made this phenomenon even more remarkable is the near
absence of other forms of artistic expression such as music,
painting, and drama. The sole elaborate form of artistic
expression available to the pre-Islamic Arabs was the art of the
spoken word. [10] Eloquence and the ability to compose
articulate prose or poetry were foremost among the traits of a
worthy bedouin. [11]
Other such traits included horsemanship, courage, and
hospitality.With its very nature and structure, its abundance of
imagery, vocabulary, and figures of speech, the Arabic language
lent itself to elaborate poetic composition and sonorous prose.
The tremendous quantity of poetry that we have inherited attests
to the significant role language played in pre-Islamic Arabia.
In fact, the role language and poetry played was so important
that other fields of study which developed during the first
centuries of the Islamic era were greatly influenced by the then
established study of poetic literature. [12]
The importance of poetry for that era is clearly manifest in the
writings of scholars from subsequent centuries. Al-Jahiz (d.
869), for instance, quotes poetic works in his famous al-Bayan
wa l-Tabyin. [13] The grammarian al-Asma'i (d. c. 830) used the
term fasih (articulate) in reference to the poets whom he
quotes. The following quotation from Ibn Rashiq further
illustrates the importance attached to linguistic skills in
pre-Islamic Arabia. He writes:
Whenever a poet emerged in an Arab tribe, other tribes would
come to congratulate, feasts would be prepared, the women would
join together on lutes as they do at weddings, and old and young
men would all rejoice at the good news. The Arabs used to
congratulate each other only on the birth of a child and when a
poet rose among them. [14]
In his 'Uyun al-Akhbar, Ibn Qutayba defined poetry as follows:
Poetry is the mine of knowledge of the Arabs and the book of
their wisdom, the archive of their history and the reservoir of
their epic days, the wall that defends their exploits, the
impassable trench that preserves their glories, the impartial
witness for the day of judgement. [15]
Ibn Khaldun (d. 1406), a notable scholar of the fourteenth
century, remarked on the importance of poetry in Arab life:
It should be known that Arabs thought highly of poetry as a form
of speech. Therefore, they made it the archives of their
history, the evidence for what they considered right and wrong,
and the principal basis of reference for most of their sciences
and wisdom. [16]
Almost four centuries earlier, Ibn Faris (d. 1005) elaborated on
the same theme, but went further to comment on the quality of
the poetry that was composed during the pre-Islamic era:
Poetry is the archive of the Arabs; in it their genealogies have
been preserved; it sheds light on the darkest and strangest
things found in the Book of God and in the tradition of God's
apostle and that of his companions. Perhaps a poem may be
luckier than another, and one poem sweeter and more elegant than
another, but none of the ancient poems lacks its degree of
excellence. [17]
Such was the role that the spoken word played in the life of
pre-Islamic Arabs. With the emphasis placed on eloquent and
articulate speech, the prominent position occupied by those who
had the talent for linguistic composition, and the pride the
early Arabs took in their language, it is little wonder that the
Qur'an was revealed in the most eloquent, articulate, and
elaborate style the Arabic language has known. The Qur'an has
without doubt provided a level of linguistic excellence
unparalleled in the history of the Arabic language. Theologians
explain this phenomenon as God's wisdom in addressing the
articulate Arabs through the medium in which they were most
adept and with which they felt most comfortable. The
effectiveness of the Qur'an was thus ensured by the fact that it
represented a level of eloquence unattainable even by their most
eloquent speakers. The Qur'an remains a book of inimitable
quality, not only from a linguistic, but also from and
intellectual, point of view. When Muhammad was challenged by his
fellow countrymen to present a miracle, in keeping with the
tradition of other prophets, he presented the Qur'an to them.
The inimitability of the Qur'an is repeatedly emphasized in the
Holy Book itself. Thus the Qur'an challenges the disbelievers:
And if you are in doubt as to what we have revealed, then
produce a sura like unto it. (2: 23) [18]
A yet stronger challenge occurs in another chapter:
Or do they say: 'He forged it'? Say: 'Bring then a sura like
unto it and call [to your aid] anyone you can. ' (10: 38)
The role of the poet in pre-Islamic Arabia
Except for a few proverbs, legends, and some magical and
medicinal formulee, the bulk of the literary heritage from the
pre-Islamic era was in the form of poetry. [19] Prose, which
lacks the elaborate rhythm and formal structure of poetry, did
not lend itself easily to memorization. Furthermore, in the
absence of a developed system of writing, prose was much less
easily preserved. Prose works from the pre-Islamic period were
mainly genealogies (ansab) and legends dealing with inter-tribal
wars (ayyam al-'arab). [20] Poetry therefore represents the main
form of artistic expression during the pre-Islamic era.
The significance of poetry in pre-Islamic Arabia was underscored
by the annual fairs, the most famous of which was the Suq Ukaz,
in which poets competed for fame and recognition through
recitations of poetry. The recitations constituted the main form
of entertainment at the fairs. which were cultural as well as
trading events.
The pre-Islamic poet, enjoying his enviable talent for composing
poetry, played multiple roles. He was an artist, an entertainer,
a journalist, and the spokesman for his tribe. Furthermore, he
was the historian who kept alive the history and past glories of
his tribe. His poetry provided a very effective means of
propaganda and public relations. He was readily capable of
influencing public opinion, and his poetry was sought by kings
and tribal chiefs who generously rewarded him. In short, the
poet enjoyed a very prominent status in pre-Islamic Arabia. [21]
The inimitability of the Qur'an
The inimitability of the Qur'an is not limited to its content.
In fact, the Holy Book of Islam is held by Muslim scholars to be
inimitable not only in its content but also in its language. The
Qur'an, it has been constantly maintained, embodies linguistic
and literary beauty which exceeds anything of human origin. This
is borne out by the fact that no-one has ever been able to
compose anything remotely resembling it in its linguistic,
literary, or conceptual elegance. [22] This point is repeatedly
emphasized in the Holy Book itself. Thus the Qur'an says:
If the whole of mankind and the jinn were to gather together to
produce the like of this Qur'an, they could not produce the like
thereof, even if they backed each other up. (17:88)
The inimitable nature of the Qur'an was recognized by generation
after generation of scholars. Al-Tabari (d. 923) dealt with this
subject in his voluminous study of the Holy Book. [23]
Al-Zamakhshari elaborated on this theme in his famous
al-Kashshaf, [24] as did Baydawi in his Tafsir. [25] AlBaqillam,
a prominent scholar, wrote a book which he devoted entirely to
this subject and to which he gave the title I'jaz al-Qur'an (The
Inimitability of the Qur'an). [26] Here he wrote:
The Qur'an is so wonderfully arranged and so marvellously
composed, and so exalted is its literary excellence that it is
beyond what any mere creature could attain. [27]
Al-Jawziyya, also a noted scholar, added that:
Whoever knows Arabic and is acquainted with lexicography,
grammar, rhetoric, and Arabic poetry and prose recognizes ipso
facto the supremacy of the Qur'an [28]
Ibn Khaldun also dealt with certain aspects of the style of the
Qur'an:
The inimitability of the Qur'an consists in the fact that its
language indicates all the requirements of the situation
referred to, whether they are stated or understood. This
represents the highest degree of speech. In addition, the Qur'an
is perfect in the choice of words and excellence of arrangement.
[29]
The inimitability as well as the linguistic significance of the
Qur'an can be better understood within its pre-Islamic context
and according to the role language played during that period.
Furthermore, the linguistic significance of the Qur'an can also
be better understood within that same context. The linguistic
aspect of the Holy Book was brilliantly used by the Prophet in
challenging and eventually prevailing upon his fellow Arabs who
held in high esteem those who were eloquent and articulate. The
eloquence of the Qur'an clearly impressed and overwhelmed them.
This explains why the Qur'an has been referred to as 'Muhammad's
miracle', or. as the 'miracle of Islam'. The use of the power of
the Qur'an as a means of persuasion was admitted by the Prophet
himself and was mentioned repeatedly in the Qur'an mostly in the
form of a challenge to the disbelievers to produce something
similar. On the need and justification for the Prophet to use a
book such as the Qur'an, Ibn Qutayba wrote:
God offered the Qur'an as the Prophet's sign in the same way as
He offered signs for all the other prophets. He sent the things
most appropriate to the time in which they were sent. Thus Moses
had the power to divide the sea with his hand and rod, and to
let the rock burst forth with water in the desert, and all his
other signs in a time of magic. And Jesus had the power to bring
the dead back to life, to make birds out of clay, to cure those
who had been blind from birth and the leprous, and all his other
signs in a time of medicine. And Muhammad, may God bless him and
grant him salvation, had the book and all his other signs in a
time of eloquence. [30]
The impact of the Qur'an of the Arabic language
Structure and content
As has already been pointed out, scholars have gone to great
lengths over the past thirteen centuries to describe and
emphasize the inimitability of the verses of the Qur'an.
However, the impact of the revelation of the Qur'an on the
Arabic language, its structure and content, has certainly been
the focus of fewer studies. Works on the inimitability of the
Qur'an have mostly focused on the literary beauty of the Holy
Book, its conceptual strength and precision. Another important
aspect of the Qur'an, one not adequately addressed, lies in its
linguistic impact on the form and content of the Arabic
language.
The Holy Qur'an has undoubtedly helped reinforce and deepen the
Arab people's awareness of the richness and beauty of their
tongue. From a linguistic point of view, the revelation of the
Qur'an was the most important event in the history of the Arabic
language. It was an event with far-reaching and lasting
consequence, for the Qur'an gave Arabic a form which it had
hitherto lacked. In fact, it was due to the desire to preserve
the Qur'an that efforts were made to develop and refine the
Arabic alphabet. It was within the same context that Abu l-Aswad
al-Du'ali developed the dot system in the first century of the
Islamic era in his attempt to lay the basis for Arabic
grammatical theory. [31] His efforts were among the first to
establish a permanent form for the Arabic alphabet and hence the
Arabic writing system. As deciphered from the earliest
inscriptions, the Arabic alphabet was vague, unsystematic, and
inefficient. The dot system as developed by al-Du'ah helped to
clarify and establish distinctions which were otherwise unclear.
In fact, it can be maintained that had it not been for the
strong desire to preserve the Qur'an, its form, grammar,
pronunciation, and accuracy, the Arabic alphabet and writing
system might not have developed as quickly as they did.
The Arabic alphabet and writing system were only one aspect of
the Qur'an's impact on the language; it also gave Arabic a
rigidity of form and a precision of presentation which were
novel to the language, as well as a host of new locutions,
complex concepts, meanings, and arguments. Furthermore, the
Qur'an enriched the lexicon of the language by bringing new
words and expressions into use, and by introducing loan-words
from foreign languages. It also presented a firm set of
linguistic standards and directions which were instrumental in
the subsequent documentation of Arabic grammar.
The Qur'an likewise helped to expand the scope of Arabic as it
was known in the early years of the seventh century. Islam and
the Qur'an helped to open new horizons and fields of study which
included such disciplines as philology, Islamic law (the
sharia), and Islamic philosophy. The Qur'an also introduced a
host of new themes and linguistic forms not only to the Arabic
language but to the Arab mind as well. Taha Husayn dealt with
this particular aspect of the verses of the Qur'an when he
wrote:
In its external form the Qur'an is neither poetry nor prose. It
is not poetry because it does not observe the metre and rhyme of
poetry, and it is not prose because it is not composed in the
same manner in which prose was customarily composed. [32]
The Qur'an consists of verses which vary in length depending on
their theme and the occasion for which they were revealed. What
is most interesting about Qur'anic verses is the superb
selection of words, a selection which helps to induce varying
reading speeds, which render these verses most effective. On
this particular point,
Taha Husayn wrote:
For example, those verses dealing with the dialogues that took
place between the Prophet and the pagans as well as those
dealing with legislation require the type of low reading speed
appropriate to explanation and recapitulation. On the other
hand, those verses in which the pagans are warned of the fate
that awaits them require a higher speed appropriate to censuring
and warning. [33]
The varying speeds which Taha Husayn mentions appear to be
achieved with remarkable spontaneity, which is the result, in
Taha Husayn's words, of 'a careful selection of words and
expressions.' [34] He gives sura 26, al-Shu'ara', as an example
of the type of verse requiring speedy reading, and sura 28,
al-Qasas, as an example of that requiring slow reading.
Another aspect of the novelty of the Qur'an language has to do
with its themes. These themes and topics represent a clear
departure from those which had been hitherto familiar to the
Arabs. As Taha Husayn explained:
It does not deal with any such things as ruins, camels, or long
journeys in the desert; nor does it describe longing for the
beloved, love, or eulogy, topics most familiar to pre-Islamic
Arabs. But rather it talks to the Arabs about such things as the
oneness of God, His limitless power, His knowledge, which is
unattainable, His will, which is unstoppable, and His creation
of heaven and earth. [35]
This passage underscores yet another innovative aspect of the
Qur'an, namely the presentation of novel themes through an
abundance of examples all aimed at illustration and persuasion.
The use of illustration is one of the most effective stylistic
techniques of the Qur'an. One can hardly read a verse without
experiencing the impact of this technique.
The art of narrative style represents another innovative aspect
of the Qur'an. It relates in astounding detail the stories of
Noah Abraham, Joseph, Moses, and Jesus, among others. It
presents the dialogues that took place in such stories and the
claims and counter-claims made by each of the opposing parties.
Story-telling may not have been totally novel in pre-Islamic
Arabia given the significant quantity of parables, epics, and
myths that were inherited from that period. What was novel,
however, was the type of integrated, elaborate story involving
such essential items as theme, plot, well-developed characters,
and denouement which are to be found in the Qur'an, which refers
itself to the benefit in telling such stories:
We do relate unto thee the most beautiful stories, in that We
reveal unto thee this [portion of the] Qur'an. Before this thou
too were among those who knew it not. (1: 3)
Lexical borrowing
Lexical borrowing is another area in which the Qur'an
established precedent. The Holy Book draws freely on words of
non-Arabic origin, including Persian, Sanskrit, and Syriac. The
importance of the Qur'an in this respect can be better
understood against a deep-seated theme which can be discerned in
the writings of scholars of preand early Islam, namely, that the
Arabian Peninsula was, during the pre-Islamic era, more or less
isolated from the rest of the world, and that the Arabic
language, and consequently the Qur'an, was the unique product of
the Arabian desert. Inherent in this theme is a belief in the
'purity' of the Arabic tongue and hence the scholars' reluctance
to agree with the fact that in its attempt to illustrate the
breadth of human religious experience the Qur'an drew on the
lexicons of other languages and religions. [36] The verse: Thus
have We sent down this Arabic Qur'an is often cited in support
of this view. [37] It is obvious from the literature that the
majority of the earlier scholars, for example, al-Shafi'i, Ibn
Jarir, Abu ' Ubayda, al-Qadi Abu Bakr, and Ibn Faris, rejected
the theory that some of the words of the Qur'an were not of
Arabic origin. [38] The question of lexical borrowing and the
existence of foreign words in the Qur'an was viewed differently
by different scholars. Thus the earlier scholars maintained that
the existence of foreign words implied and inadequacy of the
language. Al-Suyuti quoted Ibn Aws as saying:
If the Qur'an had contained anything other than Arabic, then it
would be thought that Arabic was incapable of expressing those
things in its own words. [39]
Later scholars, however, viewed lexical borrowing differently.
Thus, al-Suyuti explained that the adoption of some non-Arabic
words in the Qur'an took place because such words denoted
objects or ideas for which no Arabic words were readily
available. [40] Examples include the Persian words 'istibraq' (a
thick, silky brocade), 'ibriq' (a water jug); the Nabatean word
'akwab' (goblets); the Aramaic word 'asfar' (a large book); the
Hebrew borrowing 'rahman' (merciful); and the Syriac words
'zayt' (olive oil) and 'zaytun' (the olive tree). The Qur'an has
several hundred such foreign borrowings. Earlier generations of
Muslim scholars maintained that such words were either ancient
Arabic words that had gone out of use until the revelation of
the Qur'an, or that such words were ancient borrowings
introduced into Arabic long before the Revelation which had
since then acquired an Arabic pattern. [41]
Whether we agree with the view that foreign words in the Qur'an
are direct borrowings from other languages or with the view that
the majority of these words were ancient borrowings which
occurred in pre-Islamic poetry and which had been in use long
before the revelation of the Qur'an, it is a fact that the
Qur'an contains words that are not of Arabic origin. Such words
come from a host of languages including Ethiopic, Persian,
Greek, Sanskrit, Syriac, Hebrew, Nabatean, Coptic, Turkish, and
Berber. [42] By adopting words of non-Arabic origin, the Qur'an
may have helped to legitimize a very important linguistic
process, that of lexical borrowing. The importance of this
practice derives particularly from the fact that the use of
foreign words was viewed unfavourably by a large number of Arab
scholars at that time. [43] The term 'ajami (Persian, foreign)
was used strictly in reference to non-Arabic words to set them
aside from native Arabic words. During the documentation of the
grammar in the first three centuries of the Islamic calendar,
the same term was used to refer to less-than-native
pronunciations of Arabic. In their attempt to document the
grammar, the early scholars considered the speech of the
bedouins in the heart of the desert to be the most reliable and
purest, apparently due to their belief that the bedouins seldom
left the desert or mixed with speakers of other languages. [44]
Likewise, the early grammarians did not look favourably upon the
adoption of foreign terms into Arabic, apparently in the belief
that borrowing would indicate certain gaps or deficiencies in
the language.
Since it contained words of non-Arabic origin, the Qur'an
established a precedent for lexical borrowing as a tool whereby
languages may enrich themselves. This was clearly one of the
most innovative aspects of the Qur'an. It is particularly
important given the unfavourable climate that prevailed among
the early Muslim scholars with respect to lexical borrowing.
Structure and style
The Qur'an has made remarkable contributions to the structure
and style of the Arabic language. It combines within its covers
the first documentation of the sentence patterns of Arabic, and
it was instrumental in the documentation of Arabic grammar which
began in the first Islamic century. From the time of Sibawayh
(d. c. 793) up to the present day there is hardly a page in any
manual of Arabic grammar which does not contain one or more
verses from the Qur'an. Furthermore, the strong interest in
Qur'anic studies brought with it an equally strong interest in
Arabic linguistic studies.
The style of the Qur'an helped to develop and enrich the Arabic
language. As the first book in the Arabic language, it
introduced stylistic innovations which greatly influenced trends
in subsequent generations. Foremost among such trends is the
Qur'an's abundant use of figures of speech in place of simple
words. The Qur'an makes extensive use of illustrations, imagery,
and metaphor, thus adding beauty, life, and colour to plain
words In fact, the ubiquity of figures of speech in the Qur'an
has led Sayyid Qutb to conclude that 'the use of imagery and
figures of speech is the Qur'an's preferred style.' [45] The
preference for figures of speech over plain words appears to be
a general trend that permeates the entire Book. Thus, the Qur'an
affirms the impossibility of the disbelievers' entry into
paradise:
Nor will they enter the Garden until a thick rope can pass
through the eye of a needle. (7: 40)
Confirming that the disbelievers' actions will be in vain, the
Qur'an conveys this notion in the following way:
The parable of those who reject their Lord is that their works
are as ashes on which the wind blows furiously as on a
tempestuous day. (14: 18)
Another idea, that of those who do charitable acts yet spoil
what they have done by gloating and reminding others of such
acts is conveyed thus:
they are in a parable like a hard, barren rock on which is a
little soil: on it falls heavy rain which leaves it just a bare
stone. (2: 265)
The opposite case, namely that of those who spend for God's sake
rather than in order to boast, is also expressed through
imagery:
as a garden, high and fertile; heavy rain falls on it but makes
it yield a double increase of harvest. (2: 265)
Earlier in the same sura, the same idea is conveyed through a
different figure of speech:
The parable of those who spend their money in the way of God is
that of a grain of corn: it groweth seven ears and each ear hath
a hundred grains. (2: 261)
Criticizing those who worship gods other than Allah, the Qur'an
likens their actions to that of a spider building a web:
The parable of those who take protectors other than God is that
of the spider building for itself a house; but, truly, the
flimsiest of houses is the spider's house. (29: 41)
Doomsday is one of the frequent themes of the Qur'an. The
description of the horrors of that day is also presented through
figures of speech:
for the convulsion of the Hour will be a terrible thing! The day
ye shall see it, each mother giving suck shall forget her
suckling-babe, and each pregnant female shall deliver her load.
Thou shalt see mankind as in a drunken riot, yet not drunk. (22:
2)
Another very characteristic stylistic device of the Qur'an is
that of anthropomorphization. Thus it describes dawn as
breathing away the darkness (78: 10), the night as concealing
the sun and veiling the day, the wind as fecundating, causing
the rain to fall (15: 22). The sea is likened to ink which, if
used, will not suffice to write the words of God:
Say: If the ocean were ink wherewith to write out the words of
my Lord, sooner would the ocean be exhausted, even if we added
another ocean like it. (18: 109)
Slandering is likened to eating another persons's flesh:
Nor speak ill of each other behind their backs. Would any of you
like to eat the flesh of his dead brother. (49: 12)
The rhythmic patterns of speech found in Qur'anic recitations is
yet another remarkable aspect of the language of the Qur'an.
These patterns are a reflection of the special array of words
and arrangement of phrases found in the Book. In the view of
many scholars such verses combine the characteristics of both
poetry and prose. [46] Unlike some poetry, the verses of the
Qur'an do not have one single rhyme, thus there is more room for
flexibility and freedom of expression. The Qur'an does, however,
reflect certain aspects of poetry, especially with respect to
its use of words with identical numbers of syllables. This
'music' is more noticeable in short verses than it is in long
ones. [47] Sayyid Qutb cites sura 53
(al-Najm) as an excellent example of prose rhythm produced by
words similar in length and all ending in the same sound, in
this case the long a [48] There is another type of internal
rhythm which is inherent in the structure of the single
sentence. This is seen when the length of words varies within
the same sura. A good example of this is sura 19 (Maryam), which
begins with short words and phrases, then changes to longer
ones. Furthermore, the rhythms of the various segments are
enhanced by the use of two main rhymes throughout the entire
sura. These rhymes end either in nun or mim preceded by either
ya' or wa'w.
The narrative aspect of Qur'an style remains one of the most
creative and innovative of the Holy Book, one which has
profoundly influenced and enriched the Arabic language. Whatever
narrative style the language had in pre-Islamic times were
relatively crude and primitive. Even though the narrative parts
of the Qur'an were clearly put to the service of the main theme
of the Book, i.e., religion, the narrative was so highly
developed and integrated that it became a work of art in itself.
The Qur'an is remarkably innovative with respect to its method
of presentation, which involves four different techniques. One
common technique is that if beginning a story with a short
summery, followed by the details from beginning to end, as in
sura 18 (al-Kahf). The second technique is that of beginning a
story by presenting the conclusion first, then the lesson to be
derived from it, and then the story from beginning to end, as in
the story of Moses in sura 28 (al-Qasas). The third technique
presents the story directly without introduction, as in that of
Mary following the birth of Jesus in sura 19 (Maryam), and the
story of King Solomon and the ants in sura 27 (al-Naml). The
fourth, and perhaps most innovative, technique is that of
presenting the story through dramatization. This technique gives
only a brief introduction signalling the beginning of the scene,
followed by a dramatization of the story with a dialogue among
the various characters, as in the story of Abraham and Ismail in
sura 2.
An important element in the structure of Qur'anic narrative is
the varied use of the element of surprise. In some cases the
anticlimax is kept from the main players and spectators, and is
unfolded for both simultaneously towards the end, as in sura 18
in the story of Moses and the scholar. Another use of the
element of surprise reveals the anticlimax to the audience but
conceals it from the characters, who act in total ignorance. The
Qur'an commonly uses this technique in situations where satire
is intended (satire which is directed at the actors and their
behaviour) as in the story in sura 68 (al-Qalam). A third
technique reveals part of the anticlimax to the audience while
keeping part of it concealed from both the audience and the
characters, as in the story in sura 27 (al-Naml).
The structure of Qur'anic narrative displays the well-developed
elements of an integrated literary work. One of the elements
indispensable to dramatized narrative is change of scenery,
which the Qur'an utilizes fully. In the story of Joseph in sura
12, the reader is presented with a succession of scenes, each of
which leads to the next, picking up the main thread of the
narrative. Joseph's story comprises some twenty-eight scenes,
each of which leads to the next in a manner which maintains the
organic unity of the entire narrative. All such scenes are
presented through dialogues replete with details and ideas. The
result of such a well-knit passage is that the reader finds
himself drawn to the narrative, moving anxiously from one scene
to another. This effect is achieved through a coherent series of
events which sustain his curiosity and interest. In one scene,
for example, we find one of Joseph's brothers entering the
king's court in Egypt where Joseph is the keeper of the
store-house. In this scene, Joseph stipulates to his brothers
that they should bring their younger brother to the king's court
in order to receive provisions. The next scene presents the
brothers deliberating among themselves, which is followed by a
scene in which they have returned to face their father, Jacob.
The following scene takes the brothers back to Egypt to confront
Joseph. The presentation of the narrative in dramatic form
involving a succession of scenes brings home effortlessly the
main theme and the lessons to be derived from the whole
narrative. The use of dialogue makes the scenes more vivid and
closer to life. This is an art in which the Qur'an excels, and
an art in which it is remarkably innovative. It is clearly a
form of literary composition which the Qur'an, the first book in
Arabic, introduced to the language.
The portrayal of personalities is a very significant element of
the narrative; here, again, the Qur'an sets a precedent. The
depiction of personalities in the various narratives manages to
convey to the reader the precise dimensions and traits of such
figures. This is done through the words and actions of the
personalities portrayed. In the story of Moses, for example, the
reader is readily able to discern, through Moses' actions, the
type of aggressive yet emotionally sensitive person he was meant
to portray. Conversely, in the story of Abraham, the Qur'anic
verses carefully depict a calm, peaceful, and patient
personality. This careful and accurate delineation of
personality is effected largely through dialogue which
skillfully brings out the traits of such personalities. The
dialogue, in turn, is rendered even more effective by a very
careful choice of words.
Islam, the Qur'an, and the internationalization of the Arabic
language
The revelation of the Quran in Arabic in the early part of the
seventh century AD helped the language to acquire and
international status which it has continued to enjoy until the
present day. It has been argued that Arabic has not simply
remained ancilliary to Islam but that it has been significant as
a 'means of cultural and national revival in the Arabic-speaking
countries.' [49] It is true that Arabic has played an important
role in the life and history of the Arab people, but without the
bond it has with Islam it would not have been likely to have
acquired the type of international status it has acquired
through Islam. It was under the banner of religion that Arabic
spread beyond the borders of the Arabian Peninsula. The early
Muslims who emerged from the north-western part of the Arabian
Peninsula brought with them not only the Islamic religion but
Arabic as well. This phenomenon was so remarkable that, within a
few centuries after the revelation of the Qur'an, Arabic became
the common language of government, correspondence, business, and
literary expression.
The speed and facility with which Arabic was first accepted and
then eventually absorbed in the new countries was remarkable,
and it was largely due to its association with Islam. Converts
to the new religion looked with great interest towards the
original language of their Holy Book. [50] They were clearly
fascinated by the new religion and its language. The desire on
the part of the new converts to identify with the resourceful
pioneers emerging from the Arabian Peninsula was yet another
factor in their adoption of the language.
Arabic was able to replace such languages as Greek and Syriac in
Syria and the Fertile Crescent, Coptic, Greek, and Latin in
Egypt, and Pahlavi in Persia. Syriac, a dialect of the ancient
Aramaic language, had a flourishing literature until it gave way
to Arabic in the seventh century AD, and was subsequently
limited to being a vehicle for translating Greek literature and
philosophy into Arabic. In Egypt, the languages used until the
early seventh century were Coptic and Greek; both languages,
however, gave way to Arabic, which became the common language of
the country, with Coptic as the language of the local Christian
Church. By the end of the ninth century, Arabic was already
being used in churches alongside Coptic. [51] In Persia,
Pahlavi, the language of the Sassanian dynasty (224 640 AD),
used the Arabic alphabet and contained a large number of Arabic
loan-words. Following the Arab conquest in 640, Pahlavi gave way
to New Persian, which adopted the Arabic script and which was
greatly influenced by Arabic. It is estimated that one third of
the vocabulary of modern Persian (Farsi), is of Arabic origin.
[52] Persian scholars engaged in the field of Islamic studies
wrote mostly in Arabic. Among these were such prominent figures
as Ibn Sina (980 1037), al Ghazzali (1058-1111), and Abu Bakr
al-Razi of the twelfth century AD who wrote more than thirty
books in Arabic. Even though Farsi began to develop its own
identity and become gradually independent from Arabic around the
tenth century AD, [53] the language is still written in the
Arabic script. [54]
Similarly, the Arabic script was adopted for the Turkic
languages following the conversion to Islam of speakers of these
languages, which include, in the Southern Division, Turkish,
Azerbaijani, Turkoman, and Chuvash, and, in the Eastern
Division, Kinghiz, Kazakh, and Tatar. The Turkic languages
continued to use the Arabic script until the early part of this
century. The Turkish language, the most important of the Turkic
languages, was doubly influenced by Arabic; first, through
conversion to Islam, the adoption of the Arabic script, and the
adoption of a large number of Arabic loan-words, and secondly
through the medium of Farsi. As in the case of the latter,
Arabic was the language of composition for many Turkish
scholars, notably in the fields of religious and philological
studies. [55]
In the Indian subcontinent, the introduction of Arabic was
similarly largely due to the adoption of the Islamic faith. It
was the language of government during the reign of the sultan
Jalal al-Din (963-1014 AH). There is evidence, however, that
Arabic reached India prior to the tenth Islamic century through
Farsi, which was the language of the court in India prior to the
advent of Islam. Urdu, a written variety of Hindustani with a
substantial quantity of Arabic words, is the language used by
Muslims; it employs the Arabic alphabet. A great majority of the
Urdu scholars of the twelfth Islamic century used the medium of
Arabic for their writings. Prominent among them were Wali Allah
al-Dihlawi, Shibli al-Na'mani, and Karamat Husayn. [56] Arabic
gained more and more ground with the increasing Muslim influence
in India. Urdu, which has a vocabulary of which at least thirty
per cent is of Arabic origin, continues to the present to be the
foremost among the dialects spoken among the Muslims of India
and Pakistan. The impact of Arabic extended to other Indic
languages such as Hindi and Sindhi, the latter using the Arabic
alphabet.
In south-east Asia, the arrival of Islam in the fourteenth
century AD brought with it the Arabic language, whose alphabet
was subsequently adopted by the Malayo-Polynesian languages.
These languages are spoken by the inhabitants of the Malay
Peninsula, Madagascar, Taiwan, Indonesia, New Guinea, the
Melanesian, Micronesian, and Polynesian islands, the
Phillipines, and New Zealand. These languages employ writing
systems based on the Roman, Hindic, and Arabic alphabets. [57]
The impact of Islam and the Arabic language was not confined to
these parts of Arabia, Africa, and Asia. Indeed, the spread of
Islam into the European continent led to the subsequent
introduction of Arabic. Less than a century later, the impact of
Arabic began to be felt on such languages as Spanish,
Portuguese, Italian, French, English, and German. The impact was
most noticeable in Spain and Portugal, where Arabic existed
alongside the native languages and was used in church liturgy
and in business transactions. It was generally through Spanish,
Portuguese, and Italian that Arabic influenced other European
languages, including the Scandanavian languages. The number of
Arabic loan-words in Spanish is in the thousands. Many names of
cities, rivers, villages, and provinces in Spain have retained
their Arabic forms, as in place-names which begin with the words
bani, wadi, and al('son', 'valley', and 'the', respectively), as
in Bani al-Madina, Wadi al-Kabir, and al-Qasr. [58] Among the
Arabic loan-words in European languages there is a host of
scientific terminology. The existence of scientific words of
Arabic origin in European languages is attributed to the
pioneering efforts of Muslim scholars in the fields of
mathematics, physics, chemistry, and medicine. In their works,
Muslim scholars had to coin an entirely new terminology to
introduce their innovations, which included such novel concepts
as algebra, the algorithm, alkali, alchemy, and alcohol. In
addition to scientific terms, European languages contain many
everyday words of Arabic origin, e.g., coffee, sugar, saffron,
admiral, arsenal. Arabic numerals are another case in point.
Conclusion
The Arabic language has without doubt served as a very effective
medium for the communication of the message of Islam, and as the
Prophet's strongest argument against the challenges of his
articulate and eloquent contemporaries. It has also served as a
means for preserving the cultural and religious heritage of
Arabic-speaking and Muslim peoples. In this sense, the language
has been extremely useful to the religion. However, in its role
as the language of the Qur'an, Arabic has benefited enormously.
There is a clear legitimacy to the claim that Islam and the
Qur'an have helped to preserve Arabic from decay and
deterioration, for it was mainly due to the need to preserve the
accuracy and pronunciation of the verses of the Qur'an that
efforts were instigated towards refining the Arabic alphabet.
Subsequently, the Qur'an was instrumental in the codification of
Arabic grammar in the second the third Islamic centuries.
Furthermore, the need for Muslims, whether native or non-native
speakers of Arabic, to memorize and recite verses from the
Qur'an in their daily worship has helped to keep the Arabic
language alive. It was due to its association with Islam and the
Qur'an that Arabic gained a good deal of prestige as the
language of a young faith, a faith that was gaining more and
more followers with each new day. The interest in the new faith
this brought with it interest in the language of that faith. It
was under the banner of Islam that Arabic spread beyond the
borders of the Arabian Peninsula to far-off areas in Europe,
south-east Asia, and Africa.
From literary, structural, and stylistic points of view, the
Qur'an added immeasurably to the beauty of the language,
introducing new styles, forms of expression, figures of speech,
and structures. The Qur'an also enriched and expanded the
vocabulary of the Arabic language by employing hundreds of words
of foreign origin, thus demonstrating the legitimacy of lexical
borrowing as a linguistic device. The Qur'an similarly presented
Arab scholars with a higher criterion of literary excellence and
set new and more rigid standards for literary composition for
subsequent generations of Arab scholars. The model that the
Qur'an provided, while remaining inimitable, has sharpened the
literary skill and kindled the talent of generations of scholars
in their attempts to emulate the style and literary excellence
of the Qur'an, the first book in the Arabic language. Interest
in the Qur'an, its language, and its exegesis gave rise to a
number of related disciplines, which include philological,
religious, and linguistic studies. There is no doubt that the
Arabic language was extremely useful as a medium for the
revelation of the Holy Qur'an and for communicating God's final
message to the pre-Islamic Arabs of the seventh century. It is,
however, the conclusion of this paper that the Arabic language
underwent drastic changes in its structure, content, and status
due to its association with Islam and the Qur'an, changes that
the language would not have undergone had it not been for the
new role it acquired in its bond with Islam and the Qur'an.
Footnotes:
[1] See, for this view, 'Abbas Hasan, Al-Lugha wa-l-nahw bayn
al-qadim wa-l-hadith, Cairo, 1966, and Ibrahim Anis, Min asrar
al-lugha, Cairo, 1970.
[2] Anwar Cheyne, The Arabic language: its role in history,
Minnesota, 1969, ch. 4,pp. 53 ff.
[3] Ibid.
[4] On this subject, see Taha Husayn's excellent argument in his
Mir'at al-Islam, pp. 125 ff., and Sayyid Qutbs Al-Taswir
al-fanni fi l-Qur'an, chs. 1-3.
[5] Philip K. Hitti, History of the Arabs, London, 1967, pp. 87
ff.
[6] Cheyne, Op. Cit., ch. 4, pp. 52 ff.
[7] Ibid. ,ch.4,pp.52ff.
[8] Ibid.
[9] Hitti, Op. Cit., pp. 90 ff.
[10] Ibrahim Anis, Fi l-lahajat al'arabiyya, Cairo, 1962, ch. 2,
pp. 33 ff.
[11] Vicente Cantarino, Arabic poetics in the golden age,
Leiden, 1975, pp. 17 ff.
[12] Ibid., ch. 1, pp. 9 ff.
[13] Al-Jahiz, Kitab al-Bayan, Cairo, 1965
[14] Ibn Rashiq, 'Umda, Cairo, 1934, vol. 1, 65; also in al-Suyuti,
Muzhir,Cairo, n.d., vol. 2, 203.
[15] Ibn Qutayba, 'Uyun al-akhbar, Cairo, 1964, vol. 2, 185.
[16] Ibn Khaldun, Al-Muqaddima, vol. 3, 375.
[17] Al-Suyuti, Op. Cit., vol. 2, 291.
[18] All Qur'anic quotations are taken, with some modification,
from the translation of Yusuf A. Ali, The Holy Qur'an, London,
1983.
[19] Hitti, Op. Cit., pp. 90-91.
[20] Ibid.
[21] Cheyne. Op. Cit.. pp. 56 ff
[22] A number of excellent works were devoted entirely to this
aspect of tne Qur'an, e.g., al-Suyiti, al Itqan, and al-Baqillani,
I'jaz al-Qur'an, Beirut, 1979.
[23] Abu Ja far Muhammad b. Jarir al-Tabari, Tafsir al-Qur'an.
[24] Mahmud b. Umar al-Zamakhashari (d. 1143).
[25] Nasr al-Din al-Baidawi (d. 1286)
[26] Al Baqillan, Op. Cit.. pp 45 ff
[27] Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya, Kitab al-Fawai'id al-mushawwig ila
•ulum al-Qur'an wa'ilm al-bayan, Cairo, 1909, pp. 7, 246.
[28] Ibn Khaldun, Op. Cit., vol. 3, 338
[29] Ibn Qutayba, Kitab Ta'wil mushkil al-Qur'an, Cairo, 1954,
p. 10.
[30] Ibn Khaldun, Op. Cit., vol. 3, 1266
[31] Taha Husayn, Op. Cit., p. 129.
[32] Ibid., pp. 130 ff.
[33] Ibid., pp. 129 ff.
[34] Ibid., p. 125
[35] Arthur Jeffrey, The Foreign vocabulary of the Qur'an.
Lahore, 1977, pp. 5 ff.
[36] Ibid., pp. 6 ff.
[37] Al-Suyuti, al Itqan, vol. 1, § 38, p. 136.
[38] Ibid., p. 136.
[39] Ibid., pp. 136 ff.
[40] Ibid., pp. 137 ff.
[41] Ibid.
[42] Ibid., pp. 138 ff.
[43] Al-Suyuti, Itqan
[44] 'Abbas Hasan, Op. Cit., pp. 72 ff.
[45] Sayyid Qutb, Op. Cit., pp. 34 ff.
[46] Ibid., pp. 87 ff.
[47] Ibid.
[48] Ibid.
[49] Cheyne, Op. Cit., pp. 5 ff.
[50] Anwar al-Jindi, Al-Fusha lughat al-Qur'an, Beirut, n.d., p.
31.
[51] Ibid, p. 45.
[52] Ibid., p. 72.
[53] Ibid., p. 72. See also Cheyne, Op. Cit., p. 1.
[54] Al-Jindi, Op Cit.,p. 77
[55] In a discussion with Dr Baynurza Hayit, a prominent
Turkistani scholar who lives and writes in West Germany, at the
third annual meeting of the American Council for the Study of
Islamic Societies held at Villanova University in May 1986, he
informed me that Turkic languages enjoyed a high degree of
mutual intelligibility and interaction during that period in
which the Arabic script was in use, and that this feature began
to disappear following the switch of writing system in some of
these languages.
[56] Al-Jindi, Op. Cit., p. 81.
[57] William H. Harris and Judith S. Levy, The New Columbia
Encyclopedia, New York and London, 1975, p. 1670.
[58] Banilmadina is a large resort on the Costa del Sol in
southern Spain, Guadalquivir is a river which runs through the
ancient city of Seville, and the Alcazar is the famous palace in
that city.
Courtesy: al-Serat,Vol XIV No. 1 , Spring 1988
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